UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA 

COLLEGE    OF    AGRICULTURE 

AGRICULTURAL    EXPERIMENT    STATION 

BERKELEY,  CALIFORNIA 


I.    CEREAL  HAY  PRODUCTION 
IN  CALIFORNIA 

GEO.  W.  HENDRY 

II.    FEEDING  TRIALS  WITH  CEREAL  HAYS 

F.  W.  WOLL 


BULLETIN  394 

October,  1925 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PRINTING  OFFICE 

BERKELEY,  CALIFORNIA 

1925 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2012  with  funding  from 

University  of  California,  Davis  Libraries 


http://www.arohive.org/details/cerealhayprod3943945hend 


CEREAL  HAY  PRODUCTION  IN  CALIFORNIA 

GEO.  W.  HENDEY 


ECONOMIC   IMPORTANCE 

The  cereals  have  long  been  of  particular  interest  on  the  Pacific 
Coast  because  of  the  extensive  use  made  of  them  for  hay  production. 
West  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  they  constitute  about  one-half  of  all 
the  hay  grown,  and  in  California  the  acreage  of  small  grains  cut  for 
hay  is,  roughly,  equivalent  to  one-half  of  the  combined  acreage  of 
barley,  wheat,  oats,  and  rye  harvested  for  grain.  The  comparative 
magnitude  of  the  hay  industry  in  California  is  shown  by  the  crop 
report1  for  1923,  which  gives  the  total  value  of  the  California  tame 
hay  crop,  including  alfalfa,  for  1923,  as  $73,752,000,  or  an  amount 
somewhat  larger  than  that  reported  for  the  value  of  the  orange,  lemon, 
pear,  apricot,  almond,  plum,  and  olive  crops  combined.  Alfalfa 
occupied  about  one-half  the  hay  acreage  of  the  state  that  year.  Cereal 
hay  is  unquestionably  the  most  widely  distributed  field  crop  in  Cali- 
fornia. The  census  report2  for  1919  credits  every  California  county, 
excepting  Alpine  and  San  Francisco,  with  a  cereal  hay  acreage,  and  it 
is  presumed  that  upon  closer  examination,  even  these  would  be  found 
to  have  contributed  their  quota.  Two  regions  lead  in  grain  hay  pro- 
duction— the  Great  Valley  of  California,  and  the  hill  lands  of  the 
Coast  Range  counties.  That  portion  which  originates  in  the  Great 
Valley  is  of  less  importance  and  inferior  in  quality,  and  constitutes 
not  more  than  20  per  cent  of  the  total  crop  in  normal  season^.  It  is, 
in  reality,  only  a  by-product  of  the  grain  industry,  the  output  of 
which  fluctuates  greatly  from  year  to  year,  and  becomes  largest  in 
seasons  unfavorable  for  grain  production.  In  this  region,  too,  it  is 
the  practice  to  mow  harvest  lanes  of  from  eight  to  twenty -five  feet 
in  width  completely  around  each  grain  field  several  weeks  before 
the  harvest,  in  order  to  admit  the  harvester  on  its  first  round.  By 
this  practice  some  20,000  acres  of  standing  grain  are  annually  con- 
verted into  hay  (fig.  6). 

The  cereal  hay  belt  of  the  Coast  Range,  on  the  other  hand  is 
quite  distinct  from,  and  has  little  in  common  with,  the  interior  grain 
producing  areas.  Here  the  production  of  cereal  hays,  in  conjunction 
with  stock  raising,   is  the   dominant   agricultural   industry,   and   all 


1  California    Crop    Report,    1923.      California    Cooperative    Crop    Reporting 
Service,  Special  Publication  No.  43:   6,  Sacramento,  Calif.    1924. 

2  Fourteenth   Census   of   the  United   States:    1920.      Agriculture:    California, 
pp.  25-30. 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


Fig.  1. — Hay  schooner  on  the  Sacramento  Kiver.  The  great  system  of  water- 
ways tributary  to  the  bay  of  San  Francisco  provides  cheap  transportation  for 
the  bulky  hay  crop  from  the  principal  areas  of  origin  to  the  terminal  market. 
Many  wholesale  dealers  own  and  operate  hay  schooners  or  barges  of  from  75  to 
100  tons  capacity,  which  ply  between  San  Francisco  and  the  producing  sections 
of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  valley,  and  the  island  districts  of  Marin, 
Sonoma,  and  Napa  counties,  as  far  north  as  Petaluma. 


BULL.  394]  CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  5 

of  the  conditions  necessary  for  the  production  of  cereal  hay  of  high 
quality  are  fulfilled  in  a  very  perfect  manner.  This  area  embraces 
a  broad  belt  of  rolling  hills,  known  as  the  Coast  Range,  lying  between 
the  interior  valleys  and  the  sea,  and  extending  from  Sonoma  County 
on  the  north  to  the  Mexican  boundary,  550  miles  to  the  south  (figs.  2, 
3,  5,  7,  and  14).  Much  of  this  region  is  too  mountainous  for  cultiva- 
tion, but  is  intersected  throughout  by  an  intricate  system  of  fertile 
and  intensively  cultivated  valleys,  and  it  is  upon  the  smoothly  rounded 
low  foothills  which  invariably  surround  these  valleys  that  the  cereal 
hays  are  produced. 

Census  data  indicate  that  ten  of  the  twelve  leading  cereal  hay 
producing  counties  of  California,  each  of  which  harvested  above 
32,000  acres  in  1919,  were  situated  within  this  area  (table  1),  and 
that  the  two  which  were  not,  Tulare  and  San  Joaquin,  were  the  two 
leading  counties  in  wheat  grain  production  that  year,  and  became 
prominent  as  hay  producers  because  of  the  threatened  failure  of  the 
grain  crop  and  the  consequent  conversion  of  an  unusually  large  pro- 
portion of  wheat  acreage  into  hay.  The  figures,  from  the  census 
report,  are  as  follows : 

'.  TABLE   1 

Leading    Cereal    Hay    Producing    Counties 

County  Acres  of  Cereal  Hay,  1919 

Los    Angeles    90,257 

San    Diego    59,658 

Monterey 56,966 

Alameda 48,268 

San   Luis    Obispo    45,270 

Sonoma   44,652 

Contra  Costa   44,347 

Tulare   40,340 

Santa    Barbara    — 36,178 

Eiverside -  34,300 

San    Joaquin    34,082 

Santa  Clara 32,882 

The  reasons  for  this  preeminence  of  graminaceous  hays  in  the 
coast  counties  are  mainly  climatic  and  topographic,  for  although 
the  soils  are  generally  fertile  enough  to  support  more  profitable  crops, 
the  rainfall,  which  occurs  only  during  the  winter  months,  is  insuffi- 
cient to  tide  summer  field  crops  and  perennial  fruits  and  forage  crops 
over  the  summer  drought,  and  this,  coupled  with  the  abrupt  contours 
of  the  hills  (figs,  3  and  5),  too  steep  for  irrigation  development,  limits 
the  cropping  possibilities  to  quick  growing  winter  annuals,  such  as 
the  cereals,  which  mature  early  in  the  spring,  and  do  not  require 
irrigation. 


b  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

But  it  is  very  apparent  that  the  full  agricultural  productivity  of 
these  hill  lands  has  not  yet  been  realized,  for  there  are  other  quick 
growing,  early  maturing  winter  annuals,  such  as  peas,  rape,  and  tur- 
nips, which  under  careful  culture  would  doubtless  succeed  in  many 
parts  of  the  area,  Peas,  especially,  if  harvested  in  the  green  state  for 
canning,  offer  both  feed  and  cash  crop  possibilities.  Then  there  are 
the  more  drought-resistant  summer  annuals,  such  as  Blackeye  beans 
and  the  sorghums,  which  have  already  succeeded  in  the  warmer  inter- 
ior districts  of  the  Coast  Range  in  a  small  way,  and  would  respond 


Fig.  2. — Typical  scene  in  Marin  County;  north  of  San  Francisco.  The  cereal 
hay  belt  of  California  extends  through  the  rolling  hill  lands  of  the  Coast  Eange 
from  Sonoma  County  550  miles  southward  to  Mexico. 


well  to  the  application  of  intensive  dry-farming  methods  such  as  are 
practiced  in  the  Lima  bean  belt  of  the  southern  coast  counties. 

Even  under  the  most  careful  culture,  however,  it  would  be  futile 
to  expect  these  lands  to  equal  the  level  valley  soils  in  productivity, 
and  it  is  doubtful  if  these  crops  could  be  grown  profitably  at  present 
prices.  Yet,  yields  can  be  obtained  which  would  be  profitable  at 
higher  prices  such  as  those  ruling  during  the  war,  which  led  to  the 
successful  extension  of  the  bean  acreage  of  southern  California  well 
up  into  the  hay  and  grazing  areas  of  the  hill  lands. 

Finally,  there  is  the  possibility  that  the  stock  carrrying  capacity  of 
these  dry  hill  lands  may  eventually  be  greatly  augmented  through  the 
introduction  of  the  drought-resistant  perennial  grasses.  At  present  the 
native  pasturage   consists   almost   entirely   of  annual  grasses,  which 


BULL.  394]  CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  7 

grow  only  during  the  moist  season,  and  depend  entirely  upon  their 
seed  for  a  hazardous  existence  from  year  to  year.  Already  encourag- 
ing advances  have  been  made  in  this  direction  through  the  introduc- 
tion of  perennial  drought-resisting  grasses,  and  the  awakening  interest 
in  questions  of  range  management  augurs  well  for  the  future. 

Today,  the  cereal  hay  belt  of  California  constitutes  a  great  reser- 
voir of  potential  agricultural  wealth,  sparsely  populated,  and  the 
last  great  undeveloped  arable  region  of  the  state  capable  of  intensive 
development. 

UTILIZATION  OF  CEREAL  HAYS 

Fully  90  per  cent  of  the  cereal  hay  crop  of  California  is  fed  in 
the  localities  where  it  is  produced.  Indeed,  in  years  of  scarcity,  such 
as  1924,  many  of  the  exporting  districts  are  forced  to  consume  their 
entire  output.  Of  the  cultivated  grain  hays,  about  80  per  cent  is 
usually  fed  to  horses,*  10  per  cent  to  stock  cattle  and  sheep  and  10 
per  cent  to  dairy  cattle.  Of  the  wild  grain  hays,  consisting 
of  volunteer  wild  oats  and  bur-clover  and  designated  by  the  trade 
as  stock  hays,  about  40  per  cent  is  fed  to  horses,  40  per  cent  to  stock 
cattle  and  sheep,  and  20  per  cent  to  dairy  cattle.  The  surplus  above 
local  feeding  requirements,  amounting  to  about  100,000  tons,  is 
"put  up"  in  large  five-wired  bales  and  shipped  by  rail,  truck,  or 
boat  (fig.  1)  to  the  two  primary  markets  of  San  Francisco  and  Los 
Angeles,  as  distributing  centers.  Each  of  these  now  takes  from 
40,000  to  60,000  tons  annually,  but  as  recently  as  1904,  San  Francisco 
alone,  and  exclusive  of  her  export  trade,  required  125,000  tons  for 
the  sustenance  of  draft  and  driving  horses  maintained  within  the  city. 
Formerly  there  was  a  thriving  retail  hay  trade  in  San  Francisco, 
and  a  daily  hay  auction  of  arrivals  at  the  railroad  yards,  but  these 
have  now  been  abandoned.  However,  the  decrease  in  city  demands 
brought  about  through  rapid  progress  in  motor  transportation,  has 
been  partly  compensated  by  the  growth  of  interior  markets,  follow- 
ing more  intensive  orcharding  and  stock  feeding  operations,  so  that 
the  cereal  hay  acreage  has  been  substantially  maintained,  new  acre- 
age constantly  replacing  that  turned  to  other  uses. 

The  principal  export  trade  in  cereal  hays  centers  about  San 
Francisco  Bay,  and  consists  mainly  of  consignments  for  U.  S.  Army 
mules  and  horses  in  Hawaii  and  the  Philippines.  In  1923,  the 
Quartermaster   Section   of   the   War   Department   in    San   Francisco 


*  There  were  519,000  horses  and  mules  remaining  in  California  in  1920, 
each  of  which  consumed  about  two  tons  of  grain  hay,  thereby  accounting  for 
about  80  per  cent  of  the  1,296,800-ton  crop  reported  for  1919. 


O  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

purchased  and  shipped  8000  tons  of  cereal  hay  to  Manila,  and  5000 
tons  to  Honolulu,  all  of  which  originated  in  districts  tributary  to  San 
Francisco  and  principally  in  the  Livermore  and  Pleasanton  districts 
of  Alameda  County,  and  the  Reclamation  district  of  Sonoma  County. 
It  consisted  of  red  oats,  wheat,  and  stock  hays,  mixed  before  ship- 
ment with  one-third  alfalfa,  by  weight.  This  is  about  the  usual 
amount  exported  by  water  for  Army  use,  but  in  1924,  because  of  a 
hay  shortage  in  California,  a  part  of  the  export  requirement  was  met 
by  shipments  from  the  northwest.  It  is  also  significant  that  the  Army 
authorities  in  the  Philippines  are  now  (1925)  endeavoring  to  produce 
hay  rather  than  to  depend  upon  the  United  States  for  their  entire 
supply.  Small  quantities  of  cereal  hay  are  also  shipped  by  the  War 
Department  to  Panama,  and  to  Tientsin,  China ;  and  about  once  in 
a  decade  market  conditions  become  favorable  for.  the  shipment  of 
California  hay  to  Australia  and  South  American  ports,  and  consid- 
erable quantities  have  been  disposed  of  in  this  way.  In  1915,  some 
40,000  tons  of  Californian  hay  was  shipped  to  Australia.  Small  quan- 
tities are  also  sent  to  Hawaii  for  the  horses  and  mules  on  the  sugar 
and  pineapple  plantations. 

All  hay  entering  the  marine  export  trade  is  re-baled  and  tightly 
compressed,  by  a  method  differing  from  that  employed  at  Atlantic 
seaports.  Instead  of  placing  whole  bales  in  the  presses  and  reducing 
their  volume  by  combining  two  or  more  into  one  compact  bale,  the 
hay  is  taken  from  the  original  bale  and  run  over  a  revolving  cylinder, 
which  pulls  it  apart.  This  loose  hay  is  then  fed  into  a  heavy  perpetual 
type  press,  which  compresses  it  to  14  inches  by  18  inches.  Cross- 
head  bale  ties  are  used,  8  or  9  feet  in  length,  giving  bales  of  even 
length  containing  about  6  cubic  feet,  and  varying  from  50  to  70  cubic 
feet  per  ton.  By  this  method  hays  of  different  grades  may  be  mixed  and 
combined  in  desired  proportions,  and  alfalfa  mixed  with  grain  hays 
for  army  use. 

Hay  shipments  by  rail  to  eastern  states  are  impracticable  because 
of  prohibitive  freight  rates  over  the  mountains,  except  in  the  special 
case  of  choice  lots  of  red  oat  hay  for  racehorse  feeding.  In  1924  the 
transportation  rates  by  various  routes  from  San  Francisco  to  New 
York  were  as  follows : 

By  rail,  minimum  carload  weight  12  tons,  $30  per  ton. 

By  rail,  minimum  carload  weight  25  tons,  $25  per  ton. 

By  rail  to  Gulf,  thence  steamer  to  New  York,  minimum  25  tons, 
$15.50  per  ton. 

By  water,  via  Panama  Canal,  $8  to  $10  per  ton. 


BULL.  394]  CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  9 

These  freight  charges  in  most  cases  exceed  the  value  of  the  prod- 
uct, although  the  $8  rate  via  the  Panama  Canal  has  made  it  possible 
to  ship  high-grade  alfalfa,  in  tightly  compressed  bales,  from  San 
Francisco  and  Puget  Sound  to  Atlantic  ports  at  a  profit,  and  such  hay 
has  brought  a  premium  of  from  $-3  to  $4  a  ton  over  the  darker-colored 
eastern  alfalfa  when  disposed  of  at  auction.  An  ever-increasing 
amount  of  high-grade  Californian  alfalfa  is  finding  an  outlet  through 
this  new  market. 


Fig.  3. — Eed  oat  hay  in  the  El  Jaro  Valley  in  southwestern  Santa  Barbara 
County.  Typical  landscape  in  the  southern  part  of  the  cereal  hay  belt  of 
California. 

Eastern  consumers,  however,  are  unacquainted  with  the  feeding 
qualities  of  Californian  cereal  hays,  and  have  been  reluctant  to  give 
them  a  trial,  except  in  the  special  case  of  racehorse  feeding,  already 
mentioned.  Before  1009,  it  was  the  custom  of  eastern  racing  stables 
to  winter  in  California  in  order  to  profit  by  continuous  out-of-door 
exercise  and  green  feed,  and  at  first  they  brought  fancy  timothy 
hay  with  them ;  but  they  soon  became  familiar  with  the  merits  of  oat 
hay,  and  such  noted  trainers  as  Simpson,  Hickock,  Marvin,  Gold- 
smith, and  Salisbury  became  so  thoroughly  convinced  that  it  stimu- 
lated greater  spirit  and  stamina  in  their  horses  that  they  began  ship- 
ping it  east  for  the  racing  season,  and  even  to  England.  Professor 
W.  A.  Henry,  the  nutrition  specialist  of  Wisconsin,  after  his  visit  to 
California  in  1892,  remarked  that  the  speed  and  draft  horses  of  Cali- 
fornia should  be  superior  to  any  in  America,  both  because  of  climatic 
advantages,  with  green  feed  all  the  year,  and  because  of  the  quality  of 
the  hay,  which  is  freer  from  dust,  mildew  or  mold,  than  eastern  hays. 


10  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

In  1909,  California  Assembly  Bill  No.  63,  known  as  the  Otis-Walker 
Anti-Racetrack  Bill,  became  a  law  (Section  337 a  of  the  Penal  Code 
of  the  State  of  California).  This  statute  did  not  prohibit  horse- 
racing,  but  it  did  prohibit  book-making  and  pool-selling  in  conjunc- 
tion with  horse  racing,  and  this  restriction  so  decreased  the  popularity 
and  attendance  at  the  sport  that  racing  became  unprofitable  and, 
even  with  a  raise  in  the  price  of  admission  to  $2,  expenses  could  not 
be  met.  In  consequence,  the  tracks  were  closed  and  the  racing  stables 
moved  to  eastern  centers  having  no  prohibitive  restrictions.  Cali- 
fornian  red  oat  hay,  however,  is  still  as  highly  esteemed  by  racehorse 
trainers,  and  about  1000  tons  from  Alameda,  San  Benito,  and  Napa 
Counties  are  consigned  each  year  for  distribution  among  the  racing 
centers  in  New  York,  Ohio,  Maryland,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  and 
Mexico. 

AREAS   OF    PRODUCTION 

The  different  kinds  of  grain  hay  are  preferred  in  different  districts 
according  to  their  real  or  supposed  suitability  to  the  soil  and  climate 
and  to  local  feeding  requirements  and  markets.  The  range  of  soils 
and  climates  in  California  is  very  wide,  and  yet  for  each  locality 
in  the  state  one  or  more  varieties  of  the  four  cereals  have  been  found 
well  adapted. 

Barley  Hay. — Barley,  because  of  its  special  adaptation  to  semi- 
arid  climates,  is  the  most  generally  suitable  to  California  (fig.  4). 
It  is  the  prevailing  cereal  upon  the  floor  of  the  Great  Valley,  and 
also  predominates  in  the  interior  districts  of  southern  California. 
It  does  not  thrive,  however,  in  the  cooler,  more  humid,  coast  districts, 
and  is  replaced  by  rye  in  the  mountain  valleys  of  the  north,  and  by 
oats  in  the  foothill  sections  of  the  Sierras,  and  in  the  humid  coast 
regions  of  northern  and  central  California.  There  is  some  slight 
production  of  barley  hay  in  the  mountain  valleys,  particularly  about 
the  logging  camps,  to  provide  feed  for  work  stock,  for  which  purpose 
it  is  especially  esteemed ;  but  this  is  only  an  insignificant  amount  com- 
pared with  that  produced  in  the  larger  agricultural  areas.  The 
principal  barley  hay  producing  areas  of  California  are  in  the  San 
Joaquin  and  Sacramento  Valleys;  the  western  portions  of  Contra 
Costa  and  Alameda  Counties,  including  the  Byron,  Brentwood,  Alta- 
mont,  and  Mountain-house  districts;  the  Gonzales  and  Greenfield 
districts  in  Monterey  County;  the  San  Juan,  Tres  Pinos,  Paicines 
and  Panoche  districts  in  San  Benito  County ;  the  southern  valleys  of 
San  Luis  Obispo  County;  the  Santa  Maria  and  Los  Alamos  Valleys 
in   Santa   Barbara   County;   the    Ojai,   Santa   Ana,   Fillmore,   Santa 


Bull.  394]  CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  11 

Paula,  Moorpark,  Simi,  Conejo,  and  Camarillo  districts  in  Ventura 
County ;  the  Pomona  and  Walnut  sections  in  southeastern  Los  Angeles 
County ;  the  El  Toro  and  Capistrano  districts  in  Orange  County ;  the 
Oceanside,  Fallbrook,  Valley  Center,  Ramona,  and  Jamul  districts  in 
San  Diego  County;  the  Beaumont,  Morena,  Perris,  San  Jacinto, 
Winchester,  and  Diamond  Valley  districts  in  Riverside  County;  and 
in  practically  all  of  the  arable  portions  of  Imperial  and  San  Bernar- 
dino Counties,  In  addition  to  this,  small  patches  are  to  be  found  in 
practically  all  of  the  mountain  counties  of  northern  and  eastern 
California,  and  in  the  Coast  Range  valleys  north  of  San  Francisco, 
such  as  Round  Valley,  in  Mendocino  County ;  Lower  Lake  and  Middle- 
town  in  Lake  County;  and  Pope,  Berryessa,  Capell,  and  Wooden 
Valleys  in  eastern  Napa  County. 

Wheat  Hay. — The  distribution  of  wheat  hay  in  California  resem- 
bles that  of  barley  (fig.  4),  but  differs  from  it  in  these  respects: 
Wheat  is  less  drought-resistant  than  barley  and  consequently  less 
utilized  in  the  more  arid  of  the  interior  districts.  Its  production  is 
more  restricted  to  heavier  textured  soils  and  to  regions  of  greater 
precipitation.  Wheat,  moreover,  possesses  greater  winter  hardiness, 
and  is  more  generally  planted  than  barley  in  the  elevated  valleys  of 
the  north.  Barley  is  less  valuable  than  wheat  as  a  hay  crop,  and 
consequently  does  not  compete  strongly  with  wheat  in  regions  where 
the  two  produce  equally  well.  Barley  hay  is  often  produced  to  satisfy 
local  feeding  requirements  in  lieu  of  something  better,  while  wheat, 
because  of  its  market  popularity,  is  often  produced  in  surplus  quanti- 
ties, especially  for  market  consumption.  The  Altamont,  Pleasanton, 
Livermore,  and  Amador  sections  of  Alameda  and  Contra  Costa 
counties  excel  in  the  production  of  wheat  hay  of  high  quality,  and 
produce  exportable  surpluses.  Similarly,  the  Hollister,  Tres  Pinos, 
San  Benito,  and  Bitter  Water  regions  of  San  Benito  County  are,  in 
normal  years,  exporters  of  fine  grades  of  wheat  hay,  and  the  Antelope 
Valley  in  Los  Angeles  County  is  also  a  surplus  wheat  hay  region. 

Other  less  prominent  wheat  hay  districts  are  found  in  the  Monte- 
zuma hills  region  of  Solano  County ;  the  San  Lucas,  San  Ardo,  Lock- 
wood,  Priest  Valley,  Hall  Valley,  Indian  Valley,  and  Parkfield  dis- 
tricts of  Monterey  County;  the  Santa  Maria  and  Los  Alamos  Valley 
districts  of  Santa  Barbara  County;  the  El  Toro  and  Capistrano  dis- 
tricts of  Orange  County ;  and  in  the  Fallbrook,  Valley  Center,  and 
Ramona  districts  of  San  Diego  County.  In  the  north,  small  quanti- 
ties of  wheat  hay  originate  in  the  Scott  and  Shasta  Valleys  of  Sis- 
kiyou County,  and  in  the  Cow  Creek  and  Fall  River  Valleys  of  Shasta 
County.    There  are  also  plantings  scattered  through  the  Big  Valley, 


12  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT    STATION 

Lower  Lake  and  Middletown  districts  of  Lake  County ;  the  Pope, 
Berryessa,  Capell  and  Wooden  Valleys  in  Napa  County ;  and  in 
southern  Sonoma  and  Marin  counties.  In  addition  to  these  there  is 
a  sparse  belt  of  wheat  hay,  175  miles  in  length,  extending  along  the 
Sierra  foothills  at  an  elevation  of  from  1000  to  3500  feet,  from  Plumas 
County  on  the  north  to  Madera  County  on  the  south. 

Oat  Hay. — Owing  to  dissimilarity  of  climatic  requirements,  the 
distribution  of  oat  hay  in  California  is  entirely  different  from  that  of 
either  barley  or  wheat  (fig.  4).  Oats  require  a  moist  atmosphere, 
when  the  soil  is  dry  and  porous,  or  a  moist,  deep  soil  when  the  climate 
is  dry  and  warm.  When,  however,  both  the  soil  and  climate  are  dry, 
as  often  happens  in  the  great  interior  valley  of  California,  oats  are 
less  advantageously  cultivated,  and  the  crop  becomes  scanty  in  both 
hay  and  grain.  On  the  other  hand,  where  both  soil  and  climate  are 
moist,  as  in  the  coast  valleys  of  the  north,  an  excessively  rank,  coarse 
growth  of  straw  is  obtained,  generally  at  the  expense  of  hay  quality, 
and  nearly  always  at  the  expense  of  grain  production.  In  the  inter- 
mediate climate  of  the  central  coast,  however,  from  Sonoma  to  San 
Luis  Obispo  counties,  particularly  in  the  valleys  on  the  ocean  side 
of  the  Coast  Range,  oats  grow  to  prefection,  and  here  much  of  the 
oat  hay  and  seed  of  the  state  originate. 

Moreover,  the  wide  range  of  soils  upon  which  oats  thrive,  and  the 
comparatively  low  temperature  under  which  they  come  to  maturity, 
have  rendered  them  well  adapted  to  cultivation  at  high  altitudes  in 
northern  California,  especially  for  spring  planting  in  localities  having 
severe  winter  climates  (fig.  12).  Hardy  winter  varieties  of  rye  and 
wheat  are  the  only  cereals  capable  of  surviving  fall  planting  in  such 
situations. 

Skirting  the  coast  of  northern  and  central  California,  from  the 
Oregon  line  to  Point  Conception  in  Santa  Barbara  County,  is  a  narrow 
ribbon  of  coastal  plain  and  small  valleys,  given  over  mainly  to  dairj^- 
ing  (fig.  7),  and  the  conditions  here  are  particularly  favorable  for 
producing  a  vigorous  oat  or  oat  and  vetch  hay  crop.  The  climate  is 
cool,  and  the  rainfall  high,  reaching  a  maximum  annual  mean  of  60 
inches  in  the  extreme  north.  This  region,  particularly  the  southern 
part,  also  produces  large  quantities  of  oats  for  seed.  The  largest  sur- 
plus production  of  oat  hay  occurs  in  a  region  adjoining  and  imme- 
diately north  of  San  Pablo  Bay,  including  a  crescent-shaped  area 
extending  from  Ignacio,  in  Marin  County,  to  Vallejo,  in  Solano 
County,  embracing  the  flat  lands  and  islands  in  the  lower  Petaluma, 
Sonoma,  and  Napa  valleys.  Red  oat  hay  production  dominates 
the  agriculture  of  this  extensive  region,   which  grows   from   30,000 


Bull.  394]  CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  13 

to  40,000  acres,  exclusive  of  about  10,000  acres  on  the  adobe  flats  in 
the  Cotati  district  south  of  Petaluma.  This  area  is  intersected  by 
a  network  of  canals,  which  afford  cheap  transportation  for  the  bulky 
hay  crop  to  the  San  Francisco  market.  Some  of  the  principal  dis- 
tricts of  the  region  are  those  about  Ignacio,  Reclamation,  Tubbs 
Island,  Islands  No.  1  and  2,  Knights  Island,  and  Slaughterhouse  Point. 

San  Benito  County  with  about  8000  acres  of  oat  hay,  principally 
from  the  San  Juan,  Hollister,  and  Tres  Pinos  districts,  and  the  Liver- 
more  Valley  in  Alameda  County,  are  other  well-known  centers  of 
production  of  market  oat  hay  of  high  quality.  In  the  southern  part 
of  the  state  oat  hay  is  shipped  from  the  Walnut  district  in  Los  Angeles 
County,  and  there  is  some  local  production  throughout  the  coast  val- 
leys of  southern  California.  Oat  hay  is  produced  in  the  irrigated 
interior  districts  of  the  entire  state.  There  is  also  an  irregular  foot- 
hill oat  hay  belt,  situated  at  an  elevation  of  about  1000  to  4000  feet, 
extending  through  portions  of  twelve  counties  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Great  Valley,  from  Plumas  County  on  the  north  to  Madera  County 
on  the  south,  but  cereal  hay  is  grown  here  in  a  small  way  only,  for 
local  consumption,  and  does  not  emerge  into  the  larger  trade  channels. 
In  the  northern  mountainous  districts  (fig.  12),  the  following  valleys, 
among  others,  produce  oat  hay:  Pitt  River,  Scott,  Shasta,  Battle 
Creek,  Cow  Creek,  Clover  Creek,  Oak  Run,  and  Milford.  Through- 
out the  northwestern  coast  counties  oat  hay  prevails  above  all  others, 
and  is  commonly  met  with  in  the  following  valleys :  The  northern 
half  of  the  western  part  of  Elk  Valley,  the  Smith  River  Valley,  and  the 
Fort  Dick  sections  in  Del  Norte  County ;  the  Areata,  Eureka,  Fern- 
dale,  and  Petrolia  districts  in  Humboldt  County ;  the  Potter,  Ukiah, 
Round,  Willits,  and  Anderson  valleys  in  Mendocino  County ;  Big 
Valley  in  Lake  County;  and  in  practically  all  arable  districts. of  the 
other  coast  counties  to  the  south,  including  Sonoma,  Napa,  Marin, 
San  Mateo,  Santa  Cruz,  Monterey,  and  San  Luis  Obispo. 

Oat  Seed  Production. — The  principal  market  for  thrashed  oats  in 
California  is  for  hay  seeding  purposes,  and  is  supplied  partly  by  home 
production,  and  partly  by  importation  of  red  oats,  chiefly  from 
Texas.  Usually  only  a  small  part  of  the  seed  crop,  not  exceeding 
1000  tons,  is  of  sufficiently  high  quality  to  meet  the  exacting  demands 
of  the  milling  trade.  The  remainder  is  used  as  stock  feed.  The  prin- 
cipal oat  seed  district  is  situated  in  the  rolling  hill  lands  tributary 
to  the  Bay  of  Monterey  in  central  California  (fig.  5).  Formerly  this 
territory  produced  oat  seed  on  15,000  to  20,000  acres,  chiefly  of  the 
Coastblack  variety,  but  in  1924  the  area  had  fallen  to  about  3600 
acres,   principally    Coastblack,    distributed   as   follows:      Springfield, 


14 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


1500  acres;  San  Andreas,  1000  acres;  Castroville,  600  acres;  and  Del 
Monte  Junction,  500  acres.  Coastblack  oats  are  also  produced  in 
smaller  quantities  farther  north,  at  Pescadero,  Half-Moon  Bay, 
Tomales,  Fallon,  Bloomfleld,  Cotati,  Ignacia,  Reclamation,  Shellville, 
and  Point  Arena.     California  Red  oats  are  also  produced  in  the  above 


Fig.  4. — Eange  of  cultivation  for  cereal  hays  in  1924.     (p.  10  to  15.) 

districts  but  extend  into  some  of  the  interior  districts  as  well- 
notably,  the  Stockton  delta,  the  Sutter  Basin,  and  eastern  Stanislaus 
County.  The  last  district  is  known  for  the  high  quality  of  its  Cali- 
fornia Red  oats,  which  frequently  satisfy  the  exacting  demands  of  the 
milling  trade. 


BULL.  394]  CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  15 

The  Coastblack  oat  (fig-.  10),  both  as  a  hay  and  grain  crop,  is  pro- 
duced exclusively  in  the  coast  regions  of  California,  and  is  distinct 
from  the  black  varieties  of  Oregon  and  Washington  (p.  33).  Because 
of  its  thick,  coarse  hulls  and  prominent  awns,  it  generally  weighs 
from  five  to  seven  pounds  per  sack  less  than  the  California  Red  oat, 
but  customarily  commands  a  premium  of  about  ten  cents  per  hundred 
above  it.  It  is  not  used  for  milling  and  is  confined  exclusively  to  the 
coast  regions  of  the  state  for  hay  and  seed  production. 

Rye  Hay. — Rye  (fig.  13)  offers  great  facilities  for  the  production 
of  an  annual  hay  crop  under  two  circumstances  unfavorable  to  the 
growth  of  other  cereals — namely,  on  poor,  thin,  sandy  soils,  and  under 
climatic  conditions  of  extreme  severity.  In  consequence,  it  has  taken 
precedence  over  the  other  cereals  as  a  hay  crop  in  the  northern  moun- 
tainous regions,  and  has,  to  that  extent,  widened  the  range  of  grain 
hay  production  in  California  (fig.  4).  It  has  also  an  aptitude  for 
withstanding  the  effects  of  drought,  a  circumstance  which  has  added 
greatly  to  its  value  on  the  sandy  soils  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley, 
where  in  many  instances,  as  at  Delhi,  for  example,  it  succeeds  better 
than  any  of  the  other  cereals.  In  Modoc,  Lassen,  and  Siskiyou  coun- 
ties, rye  hay  is  widely  employed  for  fall  planting  on  the  dry  ranches. 
Here  it  leads  all  other  cereals  in  hay  acreage,  particularly  in  the  lava 
bed  section  of  the  upper  Pitt  River,  in  the  Butte  and  Reel  Rock  val- 
leys, and  the  Madeline  Plains,  and  in  the  Milford,  and  Bieber  sections. 
Scattered  plantings  are  also  made  throughout  the  mountain  valleys  at 
high  elevations  in  all  of  the  eastern  mountainous  counties.  In  the 
San  Joaquin  Valley,  the  largest  acreages  occur  on  the  sandy  soils  of 
the  counties  of  San  Joaquin,  Stanislaus,  and  Merced. 


GROUP  CHARACTERISTICS 

Considering  the  importance  of  the  cereal  hay  crop  on  the  Pacific 
Coast,  surprisingly  little  attention  has  been  bestowed  upon  it  by  the 
experiment  stations.  Some  study  of  the  four  groups — barley,  wheat, 
oats,  and  rye — has  been  made  from  the  nutrition  standpoint,  but  as 
to  their  comparative  hay  productiveness  under  different  circum- 
stances, there  is  but  meager  experimental  evidence;  and  all  of  the 
questions  centering  about  the  relative  merits  of  the  numerous  varieties 
of  these  four  cereals  for  hay  have  been  almost  wholly  neglected.  On 
the  other  hand,  much  practical  knowledge  of  the  subject  has  been 
gleaned  through  years  of  practical  experience,  yet  the  evident  dis- 
agreement among  stockmen  upon  such  questions  as  the  most  favorable 
stage  for  cutting  affords  the  best  evidence  that  a  systematic  study  of 


16 


UNIVERSITY    OP    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


the  entire  field  is  needed.  Many  of  the  findings  here  reported  are 
confirmatory  of  generally  accepted  opinions  and  practices,  but  in 
several  instances  they  are  decidedly  contrary  to  them. 

Comparative  Hay  Yields. — Each  of  the  four  cereals  possesses  well 
denned  group  characteristics  which  distinguish  it  from  the  others, 
irrespective  of  the  varieties  of  which'  it  is  composed.  Barley,  for 
example,  under  favorable  conditions  in  the  Great  Valley  yields  less 
hay  per  acre  than  the  other  three  cereals,*  yet  in  drought  years  it 
becomes  the  most  productive  of  the  four.  As  would  be  expected,  the 
different  varieties  of  each  group  react  differently  to  climatic  varia- 
tions, and  some  are  more  injuriously  affected  by  drought  than  others, 
but  the  general  relationship  stated  above  holds  for  the  groups  as  a 
whole,  and  is  concretely  illustrated  by  the  following  records,  taken 
from  field  experiments  at  the  University  Farm,  Davis : 

TABLE    2 

Comparative  Hay  Yields  of  Barley,  Wheat,  Oats,  and  Bye,  Under 
Favorable  and  Unfavorable  Circumstances 


Variety 

Favorable  year  1919 

Yield  in  tons* 

per  acre 

Drought  year  1920 

Yield  in  tonsf 

per  acre 

Per  cent  reduction 
due  to  drought 

Coast  barley 

4.5 
7.0 
6.6 
6.8 

4.8 

4.2 
3.7 
3.8 

-6.6 

White  Australian  wheat 

Coastblack  oat 

40,0 
43.9 

Ryet 

44.1 

*  Average  of  2,  1-16  acre  plots, 
t  Average  of  2,  1-2  acre  plots. 

%  The  rye  used  in  these  experiments  is  representative  of  the  cultivated  rye  of  northern  California, 
and  consists  of  a  mixture  of  several  types. 


All  of  the  hay  variety  trials  for  1919  reported  in  tables  2,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10, 
11,  12,  and  13  were  conducted  upon  a  uniform  rich  loam  soil,  20  to  36  inches  in 
depth,  underlain  by  a  fine  sandy  loam  of  great  depth.  The  preparation  con- 
sisted of  deep  winter  plowing,  followed  by  a  well-prepared  summer  fallow. 
Adjacent  areas  under  similar  treatment  yielded  80  bushels  of  Coast  barley  and 
60  bushels  of  White  Australian  wheat  per  acre.  All  seed  was  drilled:  wheat, 
rye  and  barley  at  80  pounds  per  acre,  and  oats  at  60  pounds  per  acre,  excepting 
the  wild  oat,  which  was  planted  at  the  rate  of  100  pounds  per  acre.  The  crop 
was  cut  and  cured  in  accordance  with  the  current  practices  described  on  pp. 
52  to  53.  The  hay  yields  obtained  under  these  conditions  were  considerably 
higher  than  those  resulting  from  usual  field  practice. 


*  As  early  as  1891,  Hansen,  in  California  Experiment  Station  Report  1891- 
92,  pp.  186-189,  reported  average  hay  yields  for  six  varieties  of  oats,  eighteen 
varieties  of  wheat,  and  eight  varieties  of  barley,  grown  at  the  Sierra  Foothills 
Substation  in  Amador  County,  all  planted  December  11th,  and  with  a  seasonal 
rainfall  of  29  inches,  to  have  been  3861,  3763,  and  2493  pounds  of  hay  per 
acre,  respectively.  The  Foothills  Substation  was  situated  five  miles  from  Jack- 
son, at  an  elevation  of  1975  feet  above  sea  level. 


Bull.  394] 


CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA 


17 


This  simple  test  confirms  the  opinion  generally  entertained  that 
barley  is  the  most  productive  hay  crop  of  the  four  cereals  in  the  drier, 
more  uncertain  districts,  and  in  seasons  of  extreme  drought,  but  that 
under  more  favorable  circumstances  is  the  least  productive.  In  the 
1918-1919  season  the  four  crops  of  table  2  were  planted  December  6th, 
on  a  well-prepared  fallow,  and  received  19.4  inches  of  rain  during 
their  growth,  but  the  1919-1920  season  they  were  planted  January  8th, 
on  a  similarly  prepared  fallow,  and  received  only  8.94  inches  of  rain. 
The  first  season  was  a  favorable  one  for  cereal  growth,  while  the 
latter  one  was  unfavorable.  Barley  suffered  no  decrease  in  hay  yield, 
while  the  other  three  cereals  were  depressed  in  yield  from  40  to  44 
per  cent.  It  has  previously  been  conclusively  demonstrated  that  bar- 
ley and  rye,  with  respect  to  grain  yield,  are  more  drought-resistant 
than  wheat  or  oats,  but  in  point  of  hay  yield  this  solitary  test  would 
indicate  that  barley  is  even  less  affected  by  drought  especially  as  com- 
pared to  rye.  For  example,  in  the  two  seasons  under  discussion  the 
grain  yields  of  the  four  cereals  were  as  f oIIoavs  :  ..   V  ' 


TABLE  3 

Comparative  Grain  Yields  of  Barley,  Wheat,  Oats,  and  Rye,  Under 
Favorable   and   Unfavorable   Circumstances* 


Variety 


Coast  barley 

White  Australian  wheat 

California  Red  oat 

Rye 


Favorable  year  191< 

Yield  in  bushels 

per  acre 


27.4 
28.7 
27.3 
14.0 


Drought  year  1920 

Yield  in  bushels 

per  acre 


16.4 

3.7 
4.8 
6.6 


Per  cent  reduction 
due  to  drought 


40.1 

87.1 
82.4 

52.8 


*  Unpublished  data  from  continuously  cropped  plots  in  rotation  experiment,  Davis,  Calif.,  Project 
No.  174.  -  1919-1920.    . 


These  figures  unite  with  previous  tests  in  demonstrating  that  the 
grain  yields  of  barley  and  rye  are  reduced  less  by  drought  than  those 
of  wheat  or' oats,  but  in  addition  to  this  they  show  that  the  hay  yields 
of  all  except  rye  are  much  less  reduced  by  drought  than  grain  yields 
under  similar  circumstances.  In  this  instance  the  grain  yields  of 
wheat  and  oats  suffered  approximately  double  the  percentage  reduc- 
tion of  their  hay  yields,  and  barley,  while  suffering  no  reduction  in 
hay  yields  lost  40  per  cent  in  grain  yield,  and  rye  lost  8.7  per  cent 
more  in  grain  than  in  hay  yield.  Comparative  hay  yields  for  indivdual 
varieties  of  barley,  wheat,  oats,  and  rye  are  reported  under  Varieties 
(tables  6,  7,  and  8). 


18 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


Comparative  Ripening  Periods. — The  ripening  period  of  the  crop 
is  closely  related  to  the  yield  of  hay.  During  the  seasons  of  1919  and 
1920  these  periods  were  recorded  as  follows : 


TABLE    4 
Ripening  Periods  for  Cereal  Hays 


Variety 

Number  of 

days  to  ripen* 

1919 

Number  of 

days  to  ripen* 

1920 

Reduction  in 
days  due  to 
drought  and 
late  planting 

Per  cent 
.  reduction 

Coast  barley 

174 

194 
211 

187 

131 
141 

148 
138 

43 
53 
63 
49 

24  7 

White  Australian  wheat 

27  3 

Coastblack  oat 

29.8 

Rye 

26.2 

*  Soft  dough. 

Fig.  5. — Ked  oat  hay  on  old  marine  terraces  overlooking  the  Bay  of  Mon- 
terey, in  Santa  Cruz  County.  The  more  accessible  land  at  the  right  has  been 
planted  to  potatoes.  This  is  representative  of  the  Coastblack  oat  hay  district 
of  the  central  coast  region. 

The  significant  relationship  here  brought  out  is  that  the  order  of 
ripening  has  been  maintained  in  spite  of  the  shortening  of  the  growth 
period  through  a  combination  of  drought  and  late  planting  in  1920. 
The  planting  dates  were  November  6  for  1919,  and  January  8  for 
1920,  or  64  days  later.  It  is  also  noteworthy  that  the  later  maturing 
cereals — oats  and  wheat — not  only  sustained  greater  curtailment  of 
growing  period,  but  they  also  suffered  more  loss  in  grain  yield  than 
barley  or  rye,  presumably  partly  in  consequence  of  a  more  restricted 
growing  season. 


Bull.  394]  CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  19 

Height  Growth  in  Relation  to  Yield. — It  is  somtimes  assumed 
that  height  growth  is  a  reliable  index  of  hay  yield  and  may  be  used  in 
estimating  probable  tonnage  per  acre,  but  it  is  evident  from  measure- 
ments and  correlations  determined  in  1919  and  1920  that  no  broad 
generalization  can  be  made  in  this  respect,  and  that  each  cereal  appar- 
ently responds  differently.  Coast  barley,  for  example,  made  exactly 
the  same  height  growth,  46  inches,  each  season,  and  was  not  reduced 
in  hay  yield  as  a  result  of  the  drought.  Rye,  on  the  other  hand,  attained 
a  height  of  66  inches  each  season,  but  sustained  a  reduction  in  hay 
yield  of  44  per  cent.  Wheat,  however,  was  reduced  from  68  to  42 
inches  in  height,  or  38.2  per  cent,  and  yielded  40  per  cent  less  hay, 
while  oats  fell  from  60  inches  to  54  inches  in  height,  a  reduction  of 
only  10  per  cent,  yet  lost  43.9  per  cent  in  hay  yield.  From  these 
observations  it  is  clear  that  hay  yield  cannot  be  taken  as  a  function 
of  height  growth  uniformly  for  the  four  cereals,  and  while  the  data 
are  not  complete  enough  to  admit  of  definite  conclusions,  they  indicate 
that  while  height  may  give  a  general  indication  of  hay  yield  in  barley 
and  wheat,  it  is  less  reliable  in  the  case  of  oats  and  rye.  It  is  also 
obvious  that  height  growth  alone  is  misleading  as  a  standard  of  com- 
parison in  estimating  the  comparative  hay  yield  of  any  two  cereals, 
particularly  under  the  influence  of  drought.  For  example,  in  1920, 
a  rye  crop  which  measured  66  inches  in  height  yielded  only  3.8  tons 
per  acre,  while  barley  which  measured  only  46  inches  in  height  yielded 
4.8  tons  per  acre,  and  wheat  which  measured  only  42  inches  in  height 
yielded  4.2  tons  per  acre. 

Physical  Composition. — Quality  in  cereal  hays  is  customarily  esti- 
mated upon  the  basis  of  texture,  color,  aroma,  cleanliness,  and  amount 
of  grain  present.  Oat  and  wheat  hays  generally  possess  more  desirable 
characteristics  as  to  quality  than  barley  or  rye,  and  are  held  at  a 
premium  on  the  market,  but  no  previous  attempt  has  been  made  to 
distinguish  between  the  several  varieties  of  wheat,  oats,  and  barley, 
as  to  quality.  The  simple  physical  analyses  following,  in  table  5,  in 
which  the  hays  cut  in  "soft  dough"  are  separated  into  their  compon- 
ent parts  and  the  proportion  of  each  by  weight  calculated,  afford  a 
means  of  comparing  them  physically,  especially  with  respect  to 
texture. 

From  these  analyses  it  is  evident  that  wheat  and  rye  varieties  rank 
above  oat  and  barley  varieties  in  proportionate  weight  of  culm  or 
stalk,  but  that  there  are  no  striking  variations  between  varieties  of  the 
same  cereal.  Rye  is  highest,  with  54  per  cent;  the  wheat  varieties 
average  48  per  cent ;  the  oat  varieties  43.75  per  cent ;  and  the  barley 
varieties  42  per  cent.  Coast  barley,  with  39  per  cent  stem,  is  lowest  of 
the  cereals  in  stem  weight. 


20 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


TABLE    5 
Physical  Analysis  of  Cereal  Varieties 


Variety 

Coast  barley 

Chevalier  barley  (Two-rowed) 

Nepal  (Bald)  barley 

White  Australian  wheat 

Little  Club  wheat 

Sonora  wheat .' 

Early  Baart  wheat 

Velvet  Don  (Durum)  wheat 

California  Red  oat 

Coastblack  oat 

Roberts  (side)  oat 

Wild  (A.  barbata)  oat 

Rye 


Per  cent  culm 
(stem)  by  weight* 


Av.  42 


39 

44 

43 

47' 

49 

50  ]■  Av.  4! 

45 

40 

42 

45 

48 

40 

54 


Av.  43.75 


Av.  54 


Per  cent  leaves 
by  weightf 


25 

34  !>  . 
31 

33 
29 
27 
30 
25 
26 
33 
31 
34 
25 


Av.  28.8 


Av.  31 


Av.  25 


Per  cent  heads 
by  weighty 


Av.  28 


Av.  23.2 


Av.  25.25 


Av.  21 


*  Stems  cut  four  inches  above  crown  and  one  inch  below  head. 
t  Leaf,  including  sheath. 
%  Head,  including  grain. 

In  proportionate  weight  of  leaves,  the  oat  varieties  lead  with  31 
per  cent;  barley  is  second,  with  30  per  cent;  wheat  third  with  28.8 
per  cent: ;  and  rye  last  with  25  per  cent.  "Wild  oats  and  Chevalier 
barley  excel  in  leaf  weight,  with  34  per  cent,  while  rye,  Coast  (com- 
mon) barley,  and  Velvet  Don  Durum  wheat  were  found  to  have  the 
least  leaves  by  weight,  of  25  per  cent.  White  Australian  (Pacific 
Bluestem)  wheat,  which  is  considered  one  of  the  best  hay  wheats, 
had  the  highest  percentage  of  leaf  weight,  while  Sonora  and  Velvet 
Don  had  the  lowest,  or  27  and  25  per  cent,  respectively.  Chevalier 
(two-rowed)  barley,  which  is  the  best  hay  barley,  had  34  per  cent 
of  its  weight  in  leaves,  while  Coast  (common)  barley  had  only  25  per 
cent.  Nepal  (fig.  8)  a  beardless,  hulless  variety,  was  intermediate, 
with  31  per  cent.  The  common  wild  oat  (Avena  barbata)  proved  to 
be  the  leafiest  of  the  oats,  with  34  per  cent  leaf,  the  Coastblack  oat 
second,  with  33  per  cent,  and  the  California  Red  oat  lowest  in  leaf 
weight,  with  26  per  cent. 

In  head  weight,  the  barley  varieties  ranked  highest  with  28  per 
cent,  rye  lowest  with  21  per  cent,  and  wheat  and  oats  intermediate, 
with  23.2  and  25.25  per  cent,  respectively.  Coast  (common)  barley 
lead  all  the  varieties  in  grain  percentage,  with  36  per  cent,  while 
Chevalier  barley,  with  its  abundant  fine  leaves  and  stems,  was  one 
of  the  lowest,  with  22  per  cent.    Among  the  oat  varieties  the  California 


Bull.  394]  CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  21 

Red,  which  is  one  of  the  best  grain  producers  in  this  locality  (Davis), 
exceeded  all  other  varieties  by  disposing  of  32  per  cent  of  its  weight 
in  grain  while  in  the  soft  dough.  This  circumstance  accounts  for  its 
comparatively  low  percentage  of  leaves  as  compared  with  the  other 
varieties.  Coastblack  and  Roberts  oats,  which  are  late  maturing 
varieties,  and  poorly  adapted  to  the  Sacramento  Valley  for  grain 
production,  yielded  only  22  and  21  per  cent  of  heads,  respectively,  by 
weight.  The  wild  oat  produced  grain  freely,  but  because  of  its 
deciduous  seed  habit  was  found  to  consist  of  but  26  per  cent  heads 
by  weight  in  the  soft  dough.     Rye,  which  ranked  highest  in  culm 


^       '  ...       '     -  • 


Fig.  6. — Barley  in  the  Tres  Pinos  district  of  San  Benito  County.  The  18-foot 
harvest  lane  has  been  cut  to  admit  the  combined  harvester  on  its  first  "round." 
By  this  practice  some  20,000  acres  of  standing  grain  are  annually  converted  into 
hay  in  California. 

(stem)  and  lowest  in  leaf,  was  also  lowest  in  head  weight,  with  21 
per  cent.  Rye  normally  possesses  a  long,  tough,  relatively  leafless 
stalk,  terminating  in  a  slender,  light  head;  but  in  addition  to  this 
it  shatters  its  grain  freely  during  the  curing  process,  even  though  cut 
as  early  as  the  soft  dough,  all  of  which  accounts  for  its  low  percentage 
head  weight. 

In  general,  oats,  which  because  of  their  soft  texture,  are  regarded 
as  the  most  palatable  of  cereal  hays,  were  found  to  contain  the  highest 
percentage  of  leaves  and  a  moderate  amount  of  grain  and  stalk. 
Wheat,  which  also  yields  a  high  quality  hay,  consisted  of  a  relatively 
high  percentage  of  leaves,  especially  in  the  more  desirable  varieties, 
such  as  White  Australian  (Pacific  Bluestem),  a  rather  high  percent- 
age of  stem,  and  a  low  percentage  of  heads.     The  barley  varieties 


22  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

showed  considerable  variation  in  physical  composition,  and  the  Coast 
(common)  variety,  which  is  inferior  for  hay  making,  ranked  high  in 
grain,  with  a  corresponding  reduction  in  leaf  and  stem,  while  Cheva- 
lier, which  yields  a  very  superior  grade  of  hay,  ranked  low  in  head 
weight  and  high  in  fine  textured  leaves  and  stems. 

VARIETIES 

In  the  main,  the  cereal  varieties  used  for  hay  are  among  those 
used  for  grain  in  the  district.  Exceptions,  such  as  the  use  of  Coast- 
black  oats  in  the  northern  coast  districts,  are  due  to  special  climatic 
requirements  or  to  special  quality,  such  as  the  use  of  Chevalier  or 
Nepal  (Bald)  barley  in  some  of  the  interior  districts.  In  the  case  of 
wheat,  a  preference  is  usually  given  to  the  beardless  varieties  for 
hay  because  of  their  supposed  greater  palatability.  What  is  desig- 
nated palatability,  however,  is  usually  determined  by  a  combination 
of  causes,  and  is  closely  associated  with  such  factors  as  stage  of 
maturity  when  cut,  or  the  methods  employed  in  curing.  It  is  equally 
certain,  too,  that  there  is  a  very  wide  variation  between  the  palatability 
and  nutritive  effect  of  such  widely  divergent  kinds  of  hay  as,  let  us 
say,  rye  and  oat,  even  though  they  may  have  been  grown  and  cured 
under  identical  conditions,  and  similar  differences  although  less  appar- 
ent, as  will  be  pointed  out  later,  exist  between  the  different  varieties 
of  each  group  of  cereals. 

Prolificacy  is  also  a  varietal  characteristic,  and  individual  wheat 
varieties  may  vary  as  much  as  a  ton  or  more  of  cured  hay  per  acre 
in  productiveness  (table  7),  according  to  their  adaptation  to  the 
locality.  Barley  varieties  are  also  variable  in  this  respect,  and  dif- 
ferences as  great  as  1.7  tons  per  acre  have  been  recorded  between  the 
Coast  type  and  the  short  growing  California  Mariout  (p.  23).  Oat 
varieties,  too,  show  specific  adaptation  to  localities,  the  slower  grow- 
ing, semi-winter  Coastblack  decisively  outyielding  the  California  Red 
oat  in  the  cooler  coast  districts  when  ' '  fall-planted, ' '  but  the  California 
Red  oat  generally  outyielding  the  Coastblack  when  "spring-planted" 
in  the  same  district. 

Barley  Varieties 

Well  over  90  per  cent  of  all  of  the  barley  hay  made  in  California 
is  of  the  "Coast,"  or  "Common,"  type,  but  owing  to  the  influence 
of  the  Experiment  Station  in  recent  years  a  large  part  of  this  is  now 
composed  of  such  improved  varieties  of  the  common  type  as  Ten- 
nessee Winter,  Four  Thousand,  and  Beldi,  which  surpass  the  "Coast" 


BULL.  394]  CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  23 

in  grain  yield,  but  are  so  similar  to  it  in  appearance  that  their  identity 
is  generally  lost  sight  of,  and  they  become  known  as  common  barley. 
For  hay  making,  however,  these  varieties  are  so  nearly  identical  that 
no  significant  distinctions  can  be  drawn  between  them. 

Mariout  Varieties,  on  the  other  hand,  which  have  attained  some 
prominence  in  California  during  the  last  decade,  possess  more  dis- 
tinctive characteristics.  California  Mariout  was  distributed  from 
Davis  to  meet  the  demand  for  an  early-maturing,  drought-resistant 
barley,  adapted  to  dry  soils  and  climates,  and  under  these  conditions 
it  has  proved  to  be  a  more  productive  grain  crop  than  the  varieties 
of  the  Coast  type,  but  as  a  hay  producer  it  is,  on  account  of  its  dwarf 
habit  of  growth,  the  least  productive  of  the  important  commercial 
varieties.  This  was  demonstrated  in  a  test  at  Kearney  Park,  Fresno 
County,  in  1921,  when  the  following  observations  were  made  by 
Gilmore  :3 


Variety 

►■*              fei 

Grain  per  acre 

Hay  per  acre 

California  Mariout  barley  ... 

4152  lbs. 
3765  lbs. 

5142  lbs. 

Coast  (common)  barley 

8548  lbs. 

In  this  instance,  which  is  representative  of  the  performance  of 
the  two  varieties  under  average  San  Joaquin  Valley  conditions,  Cali- 
fornia Mariout  produced  10.2  per  cent  more  grain  than  Coast  barley, 
but  Coast  produced  66.9  per  cent  more  hay  than  Mariout. 

Club  or  Oregon  Mariout  barley  entered  California  in  commercial 
quantities  through  Oregon  in  1918,  and  has  since  attained  considerable 
prominence  in  the  Sacramento  Valley,  particularly  in  Glenn  County 
and  vicinity.  It  has  little  in  common  with  California  Mariout,  either 
in  appearance  or  adaptation,  and  owes  its  popularity  chiefly  to  an 
attractive  appearance  and  consequent  demand  for  export  shipment 
for  malting  purposes. 

Recent  controversies  among  English  and  Scotch  malsters  as  to 
the  value  of  this  barley  have  reacted  unfavorably  upon  its  market 
value  in  California  and  resulted  in  reduced  acreages  in  1924-25.  The 
kernels  are  large,  plump,  light  colored,  and  enclosed  in  a  thin  hull. 
The  straw  is  of  about  the  same  height  and  texture  as  that  of  Coast 
barley,  and  the  head  is  compact  and  club-like.  It  ripens  at  the  same 
time,  and  is  in  general  adapted  to  the  same  conditions  as  common 
Coast  barley.  It  does  not  possess  the  specific  drought  tolerance  of 
California  Mariout.  In  grain  yield  it  is  slightly  superior  to  Coast, 
and  in  hay  yield  it  seems  only  slightly  less  productive. 

3  Report  Calif.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  1920-21,  p.  32. 


24  UNIVERSITY    OP    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

Chevalier  barley  is  the  name  used  in  California  to  designate  all 
barley  varieties  of  the  two-rowed  (Hordeum  distichum)  type,  and 
includes  several  varieties  similar  in  appearance,  use,  and  adaptations. 
In  acreage,  Chevalier  barley  is  of  only  minor  importance,  and  gen- 
erally not  more  than  10,000  acres  are  grown  for  both  grain  and  hay, 
or  less  than  1  per  cent  of  the  usual  total  barley  acreage  of  the  state. 
It  is  more  exacting  in  its  soil  and  climatic  requirements  than  the 
common  type,  and  is  restricted  to  the  stronger  soils  in  the  cooler 
districts  of  the  state.  As  a  grain  crop  it  compares  favorably  with 
Coast  in  the  districts  to  which  it  is  adapted,  but  in  the  semi-arid 


Fig.  7. — A  typical  coast  dairy  in  Humboldt  County  of  northern  California. 
There  is  little  irrigation  or  alfalfa  in  the  northern  coast  regions,  but  abundant 
rainfall  and  continuously  cool  weather.  The  feeding  requirements  are  met  with 
oat  and  vetch  hay,  supplemented  by  roots  and  green  pasturage.  The  cool  climate  is 
favorable  for  roots,  and  with  high  rainfall  the  pastures  remain  green  longer  than 
in  the  interior.  The  roots,  which  are  visible  in  the  enclosure  above  the  barn,  are 
fed  for  "succulence"  during  the  fall  and  winter  in  lieu  of  green  pasturage  or 
silage.  The  hay  and  grazing  land  surrounds  the  barn  and  the  homestead  in  the 
distance,     (p.  35). 

interior  of  the  state,  on  dry-farmed  land,  it  yields  only  about  75  per 
cent  as  much  grain  as  Coast.  As  a  hay  crop,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
excels  Coast  in  yield  (table  6)  in  all  situations  and  is  much  superior 
in  quality,  and  for  these  reasons  should  command  a  wider  attention 
among  farmers  as  a  hay  crop  in  the  barley  growing  areas. 

The  grain,  which  is  plump  and  thin-hulled,  is  peculiarly  suitable 
for  the  manufacture  of  pearl  barley,  and  a  large  part  of  the  grain 
crop,  which  seldom  exceeds  200,000  sacks,  is  sold  at  a  considerable 
premium  over  common  barley  for  this  purpose.     A  smaller  portion 


BULL.  394]  CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  25 

is  also  consumed  in  the  manufacture  of  malt.  Chevalier  straw,  remain- 
ing after  thrashing  is  more  highly  esteemed  as  a  stock  feed  than 
that  of  other  barley  varieties,  and  is  largely  baled  and  utilized  by 
stock  feeding  establishments. 

About  98  per  cent  of  the  Chevalier  grain  produced  in  California 
originates  within  a  narrowly  circumscribed  area,  situated  upon  the 
fertile  alluvial  soils  of  the  lower  Salinas  Valley,  partly  irrigated, 
and  extending  inland  not  more  than  twenty-five  miles  from  the  sea. 
Other  small  plantings  are  generally  to  be  found  about  Alvarado, 
Livermore,  Santa  Maria,  and  San  Juan. 

As  a  hay  crop,  Chevalier  barley  has  not  received  the  attention 
from  Californian  farmers  which  it  deserves.  It  is  almost  unknown 
on  the  hay  markets  of  the  state,  and  only  a  few  discriminating 
feeders  here  and  there  cling  to  it,  and  continue  to  produce  it  in  small 
quantities  as  a  hay  crop  for  home  consumption.  In  quality,  Chevalier 
barley  hay  more  nearly  resembles  wheat  or  oat  hay  than  it  does 
that  of  other  types  of  barley.  The  stalks  are  softer,  finer,  and  leafier 
(table  5),  the  beards  finer,  and  it  is  fed  with  less  waste — in  fact,  it 
compares  very  favorably  with  the  best  wheat  hay  in  all  of  its  feeding 
properties.  In  addition  to  this  it  possesses  greater  drought  resistance 
than  wheat  or  oats,  and  is  commended  to  the  attention  of  feeders  in 
dry,  hot  districts  where  wheat  and  oats  do  not  thrive,  and  where 
Coast  barley  is  now  planted  exclusively  for  hay  production. 

Bald  barley,  frequently  known  as  beardless  or  hull-less  barley, 
and  generally  composed  of  the  variety  Nepal,  has  had  a  long  agri- 
cultural history  in  California,  but  has  never  emerged  from  its  position 
of  comparative  obscurity  (fig.  8).  It  was  first  introduced  into  the 
state  and  recommended  for  trial  as  a  hay  crop  by  the  Experiment 
Station  in  1884,4  and  numerous  writers  have  called  attention  to  its 
merits  since  that  time.  It  has  frequently  excited  interest  through 
the  peculiarity  of  its  grain  thrashing  clean  of  the  chaff,  like  wheat, 
and  those  unfamiliar  with  it  might  easily  mistake  a  thrashed  sample 
of  it  for  wheat.  But  the  special  characteristic  upon  which  its  repu- 
tation as  a  hay  crop  is  chiefly  based  is  the  beardless  character  of  its 
heads,  which  lessens  the  possibility  of  the  sore  mouths  frequently 
occasioned  by  the  feeding  of  well  matured  barley  hays  of  the  barbed 
awn  type. 

Because  of  its  beardless  character,  Nepal  has  won  many  adher- 
ents among  the  stockmen  of  the  state,  and  its  distribution  as  a  hay 
variety  has  become  more  general  than  that  of  Chevalier,  although  it 
has  never  been  recognized  by  the  wholesale  hay  trade.     Like  the 


*  Dwinelle,  C.  H.,  Calif.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  No.  22,  Nov.  15,  1884. 


26  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

other  barleys,  it  is  drought -resist  ant  and  succeeds  well  in  the  interior 
districts  of  the  state,  and  small  plantings  of  it  may  be  found  in 
many  counties.  It  possesses  specific  adaptation  to  our  mountain 
valleys,  no  doubt  an  inheritance  from  its  native  habitat  in  the  elevated 
mountain  valleys  of  the  Himalayas,  and  scattered  small  plantings  are 
regularly  made  throughout  the  foothill  and  mountain  valleys  upon 
the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Range,  where  it  is  regarded 
as  a  satisfactory  hay  for  work  horses. 


Fig.  8. — Bald  barley,  otherwise  known  as  beardless,  hulless,  or  Nepal  barley, 
has  many  adherents  among  stockmen  as  a  hay  crop,  because  of  the  beardless 
heads;  but  aside  from  this  it  has  little  to  recommend  it.  It  yields  a  hay  coarser 
in  quality  and  lower  in  productiveness  or  nutritive  value  than  either  Coast  or 
Chevalier  barley,     (p.  25.) 

The  chief  demerit  of  Bald  barley,  and  oddly  enough  this  has 
been  generally  overlooked,  lies  in  the  coarseness  and  harshness  of 
its  leaves  and  stems,  characteristics  which  alone  are  sufficient  to 
disqualify  it  for  general  use  in  localities  where  other  varieties  can 
be  grown.  Some  feeders,  too,  have  complained  that  the  hardness 
of  the  kernels  becomes  objectionable  for  feeding  when  the  hay  is 
cut  near  maturity. 

In  feeding  tests  at  Davis  it  was  found  that  young  dairy  stock 
when  fed  on  barley  hay  exclusively  not  only  ate  Chevalier  and  Coast 
barley  hay  with  less  waste,  but  made  better  gains  in  body  weight 
than  when   fed  Nepal   barley  hay    (table   15). 

In  the  field,  Nepal  barley  grows  to  about  the  same  height  as 
Coast  (common)  barley,  but  because  of  its  erect,  stiff  stems  which  do 


Bull.  394]  CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  27 

not  ' '  droop  over ' '  or  lodge,  it  generally  appears  even  taller  at  harvest 
time.  Under  comparable  conditions  in  1919,  Coast  was  46  inches  in 
height  at  maturity,  and  Nepal  48  inches.  In  the  field  Nepal  barley 
gives  the  impression  of  early  maturity  because  of  its  erect,  beardless 
heads,  which  "turn  color"  earlier  than  those  of  the  other  barleys, 
but  the  actual  time  elapsing  from  planting  to  soft  dough,  as  judged 
by  the  condition  of  the  grain  itself,  proved  to  be  virtually  the  same, 
or  174  days  for  Coast,  and  177  days  for  both  Chevalier  and  Nepal. 
This  is  a  much  shorter  period  than  that  recorded  for  any  of  the 
wheat,  oat,  or  rye  varieties  grown  under  the  same  conditions  (table  10). 
Barley  Variety  Trials. — Coast,  Chevalier,  and  Nepal  barley  vari- 
eties were  chosen  as  representatives  of  the  six-rowecl,  two-rowed,  and 
hooded  hulless  types,  respectively.  They  were  grown  in  1919  in 
duplicated  Y1Q  acre  plots,  to  determine  their  relative  productiveness 
as  hay  crops,  and  their  hay  yielding  capacity  as  a  group  compared 
with  that  of  wheat,  oats,  and  rye.  The  seed  was  drilled  at  the  rate  of 
80  pounds  per  acre  on  well  prepared  summer  fallow  on  November  6, 
and  perfect  stands  were  secured  in  all  cases.  The  average  yields  of 
air-dry  hay  in  tons  per  acre  were  recorded  as  follows : 

TABLE  6 

Hay  Yields  of  Barley  Varieties 

Nepal    4.33  tons  per  acre 

Coast   4.51  tons  per  acre 

Chevalier 4.65  tons  per  acre 

The  average  yield  of  these  three  barley  varieties  was  about  34 
per  cent  less  than  the  average  yield  of  five  wheat  varieties  grown 
under  comparable  conditions,  but  there  is  not  sufficient  difference  in 
yield  between  the  three  varieties  to  warrant  an  opinion  as  to  their 
probable  relative  productiveness  under  other  conditions.  Chevalier 
yielded  slightly  more  than  the  others,  as  might  be  expected  from  its 
heavier  stooling  habit.  It  was  also  found  to  be  composed  of  a 
higher  percentage  of  leaves  by  weight  than  the  others — 34  per  cent 
by  weight  of  the  entire  plant  as  cut  by  the  mower  consisted  of 
leaves,  while  the  leaves  of  Coast  and  Nepal  comprised  only  25  and 
31  per  cent,  respectively  (table  5).  This  greater  leafage  of  Cheva- 
lier is  probably  a  contributing  factor  in  the  greater  nutritive  value 
of  its  hay    (table  15). 


28  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


Wheat  Varieties 

White  Australian  (Pacific  Bluestem)  wheat  (fig.  9)  possesses 
all  of  the  requisites  of  a  hay  variety,  and  is  universally  liked  in  all 
of  the  northern  districts  for  its  wide  adaptation,  superior  quality, 
and  general  utility.  It  is  extensively  employed  for  grain  produc- 
tion, and  is  also  the  variety  most  often  planted  for  hay  in  the  export- 
ing centers  of  Alameda,  Contra  Costa,  and  San  Benito  counties. 
In  the  northern  mountain  valleys  it  has  a  general  distribution  under 
the  name  Bluestem,  and  is  there  a  favorite  for  spring  planting. 
It  is  little  known  either  as  a  grain  or  hay  crop  in  southern  California, 
where  it  is  generally  replaced  either  by  the  more  drought-resistant 
Sonora  in  the  interior  districts,  or  by  the  more  rust-resistant  Defiance 
in  the  coast  districts.  As  a  hay  variety  it  possesses  prolificacy  and 
quality,  each  in  a  very  unusual  degree,  and  is,  by  common  opinion, 
one  of  the  best  of  the  hay  wheats.  It  matures  late  and  requires  more 
moisture  than  some  of  the  other  varieties,  but  under  favorable  condi- 
tions produces  a  tall,  leafy  growth  with  beardless  heads,  and  is 
the  highest  hay  yielder  of  the  commercial  wheats  tested  at  Davis. 
A  physical  analysis  of  the  hay  (table  5)  showed  it  to  possess  the 
highest  percentage  of  leaf,  by  weight,  of  any  of  the  wheats  examined. 
At  maturity  it  stands  about  6  inches  taller  than  Little  Club  (fig.  9). 
The  stalks  are  coarser  than  those  of  Baart  or  Sonora,  but  the  hay  is 
eaten  as  readily,  and  it  produced  the  second  highest  gain  in  body 
weight  per  pound  of  the  twelve  cereals,  when  fed  as  an  exclusive 
ration  to  dairy  heifers  (table  15),  and  surpassed  all  other  cereals 
in  total  nutritive  value  per  acre. 

Little  Club  wheat  (fig.  9)  is  not  so  often  planted  for  hay  as  White 
Australian,  but  through  its  general  popularity  as  a  grain  crop  in 
the  northern  cereal  districts  of  the  state  it  has  become  well  identi- 
fied with  the  hay  trade.  Like  White  Australian,  it  is  a  late  maturing 
variety,  requires  more  moisture  than  some  of  the  other  earlier  matur- 
ing sorts,  and  consequently  is  seldom  grown  in  the  San  Joaquin 
Valley  or  in  the  south.  It  is,  on  the  whole,  regarded  as  a  very 
satisfactory  general  purpose  grain  and  hay  variety,  its  non-shattering 
properties  insuring  its  popularity  as  a  grain  crop,  while  its  beard- 
less heads  have  given  it  precedence  as  a  hay  crop  over  all  bearded 
wheats  in  the  estimation  of  many  farmers.  But  in  the  strictly  hay 
producing  districts  its  more  general  utilization  has  been  retarded 
by  its  yield  and  the  quality  of  its  hay  in  which  it  is  surpassed  by 
White  Australian.     In  feeding  tests  at  Davis,  dairy  heifers  did  not 


Bull.  394] 


CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA 


29 


do  so  well  on  it  as  upon  White  Australian  (table  15),  and  it  ranked 
with  Durum  wheat  as  the  poorest  of  the  wheat  hays  tested. 

Sonora. — The  popularity  and  extensive  use  of  Sonora  as  a  grain 
and  hay  variety  is  due  to  its  aptitude  for  vigorous  growth  and  prolific 
grain  yield  under  conditions  of  extereme  heat  and  aridity.  This 
characteristic  alone,  in  spite  of  its  inferior  milling  quality  and  com- 
paratively low  hay  yield,  has  given  it  precedence  over  other  varieties 
for  grain  production  in  the  southern  San  Joaquin  Valley,  and  in  the 


- 


•V" 


.^  I  jpiiyEsj 


-^PriV 


Fig.  9. — Two  leading  California  hay  wheats  ready  for  the  mower.  White 
Australian,  at  left,  is  universally  admired  for  its  hay  making  properties,  and 
possesses  prolificacy  and  quality,  each  in  a  very  unusual  degree.  As  compared  with 
Little  Club,  at  right,  it  i3  taller,  leafier,  more  prolific,  and  possesses  greater 
nutritive  value.  The  yields  of  cured  hay  from  the  plots  shown  were:  White 
Australian,  7.05  tons  per  acre,  and  Little  Club  6.55  tons  per  acre.    (pp.  28  and  29.) 


interior  districts  of  southern  California.  In  the  north  it  finds  little 
favor  either  as  a  grain  or  hay  crop  in  competition  with  more  prolific 
varieties,  except  for  spring  planting  on  moist  soils,  for  which  pur- 
pose it  possesses  distinct  advantages  over  the  other  varieties  which 
are  more  sensitive  to  hot  weather  during  the  ripening  period.  As 
a  hay  crop  it  is  short  in  stem,  low  in  yield,  scanty  in  leaf,  and  carries 
an  unusually  high  percentage  of  its  weight  in  the  stalk  (table  5). 
But  the  hay  is  soft  in  texture,  and  when  fed  as  an  exclusive  ration 
to  dairy  heifers  produced  the  highest  gains  in  body  weight  of  any 
of  the  cereal  varieties  (table  15). 


30  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

Early  Baart. — Since  its  introduction  in  1900,  this  variety  has 
become  a  popular  milling:  wheat  and  has  been  widely  planted  for  its 
productiveness,  drought-resistance,  and  excellent  market  qualities.  It 
possesses  a  wide  range  of  adaptability,  and  is  grown  from  the  moun- 
tain valleys  of  the  north,  through  all  of  the  central  portions  of  the 
state  to  the  Imperial  Valley  on  the  Mexican  border,  where  it  is  grown 
under  irrigation.  Its  bearded  head,  which  is  its  chief  demerit  as  a 
hay  variety,  has  made  it  unpopular  with  the  hay  buyers  and  dealers. 
For  this  reason  it  is  never  planted  exclusively  for  market  hay  pro- 
duction. But  through  its  wide  distribution  it  inevitably  appears 
on  the  hay  market,  sometimes  pure,  although  more  often  in  a  mix- 
ture with  other  varieties,  It  is  one  of  the  tallest,  earliest  maturing 
wheats  grown  in  the  state,  equalling  "White  Australian  in  height  and 
standing  next  to  it  in  hay  yield.  The  hay  has  a  high  percentage  of 
leaves,  and  a  low  percentage  of  stems,  by  weight  (table  5),  but  the 
latter  have  a  wiry  character  which  is  undesirable.  In  feeding  tests 
the  stock  did  not  do  so  well  upon  it  as  they  did  upon  the  Sonora  or 
White  Australian  (table  15). 

Bunyip  is  one  of  the  newer  varieties,  introduced  from  Australia, 
and  widely  distributed  in  California  since  1915.  It  is  beardless,  of 
medium  height,  and  grows  rapidly.  It  is  well  adapted  to  the  Sac- 
ramento and  San  Joaquin  valleys  and  has  succeeded  somewhat  he'ter 
than  Club  or  White  Australian  for  grain  production  upon  the  lighter 
soils  and  in  the  drier  climate  to  the  southward  in  the  San  Joaquin 
Valley.  It  has  much  of  the  appearance  of  White  Australian,  although 
little  of  the  latter 's  quality.  In  its  adaptation,  earliness,  and  milling 
quality  it  more  nearly  resembles  Early  Baart.  It  has  not  been 
extensively  planted  solely  for  hay  production,  except  in  the  Altamont 
region  of  Alameda  County,  where  the  hay  has  been  accepted,  without 
market  discrimination,  as  White  Australian.  Comparative  tests, 
however,  show  it  to  be  shorter  than  White  Australian,  and  its  hay 
coarser  and  for  these  reasons  it  is  not  recommended  where  hay  produc- 
tion is  the  end  in  view. 

Defiance. — While  variable  in  type,  this  variety  resembles  White 
Australian  very  closely  in  its  field  characteristics,  but  differs  from  it 
in  possessing  greater  resistance  to  rust,  This  circumstance  has  estab- 
lished its  reputation  as  a  suitable  variety  for  the  mild,  humid  climates 
of  the  southern  coast  counties,  on  the  hill  lands  near  the  sea  where 
it  is  grown  in  preference  to  other  wheat  varieties,  It  is  tall,  late  in 
maturing,  and  beardless,  with  good  hay  qualities,  and  should  rank 
with  White  Australian  in  hay  productiveness  and  nutritive  qualities, 
though  the  hay  is  somewhat  coarser  and  harsher. 


Bull.  394]  CEREAL    II AY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  31 

Galgalos  is  a  beardless,  red  chaff  variety,  seen  only  occasionally 
in  California,  and  then  chiefly  as  a  spring  variety  in  the  northern 
mountain  valleys.  It  has  little  to  recommend  it  either  as  a  grain  or 
hay  variety,  and  is  objectionable  as  a  hay  crop  because  of  its  weak 
straw  and  pubescent  leaves. 

Propo. — This  wheat  offers  some  marked  points  of  resemblance  with 
Early  Baart.  Both  are  bearded,  possess  tall  weak  straw,  and  mature 
early.  Propo,  which  may  be  generally  distinguished  by  its  purple 
tinted  stalks,  is  slightly  less  prolific  as  a  grain  crop,  and  less  in 
demand  for  milling.  It  is  only  occasionally  used  for  either  hay  or 
grain,  and  is  rarely  grown  except  in  a  few  localities  in  the  central 
coast  and  southern  regions  of  the  state. 

Hard  Federation  is  one  of  the  newer  beardless  Australian  hybrids, 
distributed  b}^  the  Experiment  Station  since  1920.  It  has  met  with 
a  favorable  reception  as  a  grain  crop  in  some  of  the  more  arid  wheat 
districts,  but  its  popularity  there  has  been  impeded  by  its  short- 
comings as  a  hay  crop.  As  a  grain  crop  it  is  early,  fairly  resistant 
to  shattering,  and  high  in  yield  and  milling  quality;  but  as  a  hay 
crop  its  yield  is  scanty  and  of  inferior  quality.  These  defects  have 
prevented  its  wider  acceptance  in  California,  where  general  utility 
is  demanded. 

Wheat  Variety  Trials. — White  Australian,  Little  Club,  Sonora, 
Early  Baart,  and  Velvet  Don  wheats  were  included  in  a  comparative 
hay  yield  test.  The  first  three  represent  varieties  which  are  exten- 
sively used  and  highly  esteemed  for  hay  production;  the  fourth, 
Early  Baart,  is  a  variety  usually  discriminated  against  as  a  hay  crop 
because  of  its  bearded  heads;  and  the  last,  Velvet  Don,  is  a  typical 
Durum  or  macaroni  wheat,  entirely  distinct  from  the  others  in  its 
physical  and  agronomic  characteristics,  and  is  representative  of  a 
large  group  of  varieties  unknown  to  Californian  commerce.  The 
cultural  details  are  described  on  pages  16-27.  The  yields  of  air-dry 
hay  were  as  follows  : 

TABLE  7 

Fay  Yields  of  Wetat  Variety 

Whi'e   Australian - - - -...  7.0.1  tons  per  acre 

Little  Club 6.55  ions  per  acre 

Sonera     — - — 6  28  tons  per  acre 

Early    Baart    — 6.75  tons  per  acre 

Velvet  Don 7. CO  tons  per  acre 

Velvet  Den  ou' yielded  the  bread  wheat  varieties  by  a  margin  suffi- 
cient to  leave  no   uncertainty   regarding   its   greater   productiveness 


32  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

as  a  hay  crop  under  the  conditions  of  this  test,  and  judging  by  the 
vigorous  vegetative  development  of  the  Durums  as  a  class,  they  will 
doubtless  be  found  to  exceed  in  hay  yield  the  bread  wheats  as  a  class- 
But  however  promising  their  productivity,  they  are  unfortunately 
endowed  with  several  pronounced  faults,  any  one  of  which  would 
exclude  them  from  serious  consideration  as  desirable  hay  crops.  In 
the  first  place,  they  possess  conspicuously  long,  stiff,  tough  beards, 
even  more  objectionable  in  feeding  than  those  of  barley.  Secondly, 
the  stalks,  while  small  in  diameter,  are  tough  and  wiry.  Thirdly,  the 
leaves  are  the  smallest  of  any  cereal  examined,  and  compose  less 
of  the  total  weight  of  the  plant  than  do  those  of  any  except  rye  and 
Coast  barley  (table  5).  Fourthly,  as  might  be  expected  in  view  of 
these  facts,  stock  fed  with  this  hay  made  lower  gains  in  body  weight, 
with  one  exception,  than  with  any  of  the  twelve  cereals  tested.  In 
addition  to  these  defects  the  crop  is  very  late  in  coming  to  maturity 
(table  10)  and  lodges  badly  when  grown  on  rich  land. 

The  lowest  yield  was  made  by  Sonora,  a  finding  fully  consistent 
with  current  opinion,  and  correlated  with  its  scanty  leafage,  which 
amounted  to  only  27  per  cent  of  the  crop  by  weight,  in  comparison 
with  33  per  cent  for  White  Australian  and  30  per  cent  for  Early 
Baart.  This  correlation,  however,  does  not  extend  to  some  other 
types  of  wheat.  Velvet  Don,  for  example,  had  the  lowest  leaf  per- 
centage (table  5)  and  the  highest  yield.  The  difference  in  yield 
between  the  other  hay  wheats  was  very  slight.  White  Australian 
exceeded  Baart  by  about  .3  tons  per  acre,  and  Baart  exceeded  Club 
by  only  .2  tons  per  acre.  It  was  worth  noting  that  Sonora,  the  least 
productive,  ranked  first  in  feeding  value,  while  Velvet  Don,  the  most 
productive,  ranked  lowest. 

Wheat,  as  a  class,  was  more  productive  than  barley,  and  the  five 
wheats  were  uniformly  high  in  yield  in  comparison  with  the  three 
barleys,  which  were  uniformly  low.  It  is  also  significant  (table  5) 
that  the  greater  part  of  the  weight  in  wheat  hay  lies  in  the  leaves 
and  stalks,  while  in  barley  hay,  especially  in  the  six-rowed  types  such 
as  Coast,  a  considerably  higher  percentage  lies  in  the  head  and  grain. 

Oat  Varieties 

California  Red,  also  known  as  the  Texas  Red,  and  Red  Rust  Proof, 
is  the  most  extensively  cultivated  and  widely  adapted  oat  in  California 
(fig.  10).  It  is  comparatively  tolerant  of  heat  and  aridity,  and  con- 
sequently finds  greatest  favor  in  the  larger  agricultural  areas  of 
the  interior,  though  like  the  other  oats,  it  prefers  the  coast  climate, 


Bull.  394]  CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  33 

and  there  produces  the  largest  yields  of  grain  and  hay.  But  the 
extremely  damp  and  cold  climate  of  the  northern  coast,  particularly 
in  situations  exposed  to  the  continuous  sweep  of  the  moisture-laden 
trade  winds,  is  uncongenial  to  it,  and  there  is  replaced  by  the  hardier 
Coastblack  variety.  Seed  of  the  California  Red  oat  is  produced  in 
both  the  coast  and  interior  districts,  but  that  from  the  coast  is  gen- 
erally superior,  and  may  be  distinguished  by  its  greater  size,  weight, 
plumpness,  and  deeper  red  color.  Seed  grown  in  the  interior  may 
also  be  of  excellent  quality,  especially  when  produced  in  favorable 
season  and  abundantly  irrigated,  or  otherwise  adequately  provided 
with  soil  moisture. 

As  a  hay  crop,  the  California  Red  oat  surpasses  the  other  in  qual- 
ity, and  is  the  leading  hay  oat  in  all  of  the  principal  agricultural 
areas  excepting  in  the  northern  coast  districts,  but  in  hay  yield  at  Davis 
it  ranked  lowest  of  the  oats  tested  with  the  exception  of  the  wild  oat 
Its  response  to  a  hot,  arid  climate  is  early  maturity,  short  straw, 
and  a  quick  filling  of  the  seed.  This  accounts  for  its  comparatively 
greater  seed  prolificacy  and  inferior  hay  productiveness  under  such 
conditions.  For  example,  on  April  17,  1920,  the  California  Red  oat 
measured  only  3  feet  in  height,  while  the  Coastblack  measured  3  feet, 
6  inches  (fig.  10).  This  was  40  days  before  the  Red  oat  had  reached 
the  "dough"  stage,  and  49  days  before  the  black  oat  had  attained 
a  similar  degree  of  maturity.  But  when  cut  in  the  "dough"  the 
California  Red  consisted  of  32  per  cent  "head"  by  weight,  while 
the  Coastblack  consisted  of  only  22  per  cent  "head"  by  weight 
(table  5).  This  deficiency  in  hay  yield  is  amply  made  up  by  superior 
hay  quality,  for  the  stalks  and  leaves  are  the  finest,  softest,  and  most 
pliable  of  the  cultivated  oat  varieties.  But  for  the  same  reason,  it  is 
the  most  prone  to  lodge  when  grown  on  rich  land.  It  is  also  among 
the  first  of  the  oats  to  ripen,  and  at  Davis  was  ready  for  hay  10 
days  before  the  Coastblack  (table  10).  Oats  as  a  class  are  later  in 
maturing  than  the  other  cereals.  The  red  oat,  for  example,  required 
202  days  to  reach  the  "soft"  dough"  stage,  or  10  days  more  than 
Sonora  wheat,  15  days  more  than  rye,  and  28  days  more  than 
Coast  barley  (table  10). 

As  a  feed  for  horses,  California  Red  oat  hay  takes  precedence 
over  that  of  all  other  cereals,  but  as  is  pointed  out  later,  when  fed 
to  dairy  heifers  as  an  exclusive  diet,  it,  together  with  the  Coastblack, 
resulted  in  the  lowest  gains  in  body  weight  of  any  of  the  thirteen 
cereal  hays  included  in  the  test  (table  15). 

Coastblack  (fig.  10). — Botanical  evidence  indicates  that  the  Coast- 
black oat,  like  the  California  Red  oat,  is  of  Mediterranean  origin,  but 


34 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


how  or  when  it  was  introduced  into  California  is  as  yet  not  known. 
It  is  classified  botanically  as  Avena  byzcmtiana,  which  is  the  group 
of  the  California  Red  oat,  but  agronomicaliy  the  two  varieties  are 
distinctly  different,  particularly  in  adaptation  and  utility.  The  Coast- 
black  is  lacking  in  quality,  and  is  less  in  demand  either  as  a  hay  or 
grain  crop  than  the  red  oat.  It  is  taller,  later  in  maturing,  and 
coarser,  and  is  affected  less  prejudicially  by  the  harsh  coastal  climate 
of  northern  California,  where  in  fact  it  flourishes.     Coupled  with  its 


Fig.  10. — Contrasting  the  two  leading  California  oat  varieties,  California  Ked  at 
left,  and  Coastblack,  at  right :  each  possesses  specific  climatic  adaptation  and  geo- 
graphic distribution,  and  they  differ  greatly  in  both  grain  and  hay  productiveness 
under  different  environments.  The  red  is  finer  in  quality,  but  gave  the  lowest 
gains  in  body  weight  when  fed  as  an  exclusive  ration  to  dairy  heifers  of  any  of 
the  thirteen  cereals  examined.  The  cured  hay  yields  in  the  plots  shown  were: 
black,  6.59  tons  per  acre,  and  red  6.43  tons  per  acre,  but  the  black  required  10 
days  longer  to  reach  the  "soft-dough."     (pp.  33-34.) 

hardiness  and  late  maturity  is  its  semi-winter  habit  and  long  dormant 
period,  which  in  a  measure  inure  it  to  "drowning  out"  when  "dry- 
planted"  in  the  fall  in  heavy,  poorly-drained  soils.  By  virtue  of  its 
late  maturity  it  prolongs  growth  late  in  the  season,  and  even  with  a 
scant  moisture  supply  it  generally  succeeds  in  making  more  hay  than 
the  red  oat.  In  the  interior  this  is,  of  course,  at  the  expense  of  grain 
production,  but  in  the  coast  regions  it  continues  to  develop  after  the 
soil  has  become  dry,  probably  greatly  benefited  by  the  humid  atmos- 
phere, and  produces  relatively  large  amounts  of  hay  and  grain. 


BULL.  394]  CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  35 

Practically  all  of  the  black  oat  hay  is  grown  by  dairymen  for 
winter  feeding.  The  majority  of  the  dairy  farms  are  leased  by  ten- 
ants, and  are  poorly  equipped  for  field  work  (fig.  7).  Much  of  the 
land  is  of  heavy  texture,  and  is  ' '  dry  plowed, ' '  broadcasted,  and  har- 
rowed before  the  fall  rains.  Low  places  in  the  fields  remain  wet  for 
long  periods,  which  is  one  reason  that  the  black  oat  with  its  winter 
dormancy  often  "turns  out"  better  than  the  red.  The  coast  dairy- 
men, however,  prefer  the  California  Red  oat  for  spring  planting 
after  March  first,  for  the  reason  that  the  black  variety  planted  at  that 
season  starts  too  slowly,  remains  semi-dormant  well  into  the  summer, 
and  fails  to  yield  as  satisfactorily  when  cut  in  the  fall.  Conversely, 
when  the  two  varieties  are  planted  side  by  side  in  a  coast  district 
in  the  fall,  the  California  Red  "heads"  and  matures  in  the  early 
summer,  while  the  black  continues  to  grow  vegetatively  all  summer, 
and  ends  by  yielding  a  much  greater  tonnage  of  hay  in  the  autumn. 

Another  advantage,  that  of  greater  rust  resistance,  is  generally 
credited  to  the  Coastblack  oat,  and  frequently  advanced  in  explana- 
tion of  its  preeminence  in  the  coast  regions.  Comparative  tests  by 
the  Experiment  Station  support  this  opinion. 

Wild  Oats  (fig.  11). — Two  species  of  wild  oats,  Avena  barb  at  a  and 
Avena  fatua,  are  generally  distributed  in  California  and  highly 
esteemed  as  pasture  and  wild  hay  plants.  They  are,  according  to  all 
botanical  evidence,  introduced  species  from  the  Mediterranean  region, 
but  at  what  time  or  by  what  agency  they  came  to  the  new  world  has 
not  been  accurately  determined.  Their  very  wide  and  general  dis- 
tribution, however,  in  the  Pacific  Coast  area  suggests  a  very  early 
arrival.  Some  of  the  first  explorers  in  California  mention  them, 
the  Indians  have  names  for  them,  plant  remains  of  it  have  been  found 
by  the  writer  in  the  adobe  walls  of  the  San  Juan  Bautista  Mission, 
erected  between  1805  and  1813,  and  there  is  the  remote  possibility 
that  archaeological  studies  in  Mexico  and  Central  America  may  yet 
reveal  plant  remains  which  will  establish  their  prehistoric  introduction 
into  the  Western  Hemisphere. 

Of  the  two  species,  A.  barb  at  a  has  the  wider  distribution  and  suc- 
ceeds in  the  more  difficult  situations,  while  the  other,  A.  fatua,  is 
more  frequently  met  with  on  the  better  soils  in  the  more  temperate 
climate  of  the  coast  region,  but  from  an  agronomic  viewpoint  the  two 
varieties  may  be  considered  identical.  Both  are  capable  of  producing 
seed  and  perpetuating  themselves  with  meager  supplies  of  moisture. 
Both  produce  some  seed  which  does  not  germinate  the  first  year,  but 
remains  dormant  in  the  soil  for  one  or  more  years  and  then  often 
unexpectedly  produces  a  vigorous  crop.   With  such  drought-resisting 


36  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

and  evading  equipment  wild  oats  have  continued  to  occupy  extensive 
areas  of  rough  hill  lands  in  California,  too  dry  for  even  cereal  hay 
production,  and  to  persist  there  after  many  other  species  both  annual 
and  perennial,  less  able  to  cope  with  the  exigencies  of  the  situation, 
have  been  exterminated  through  heavy  pasturing. 

Wild  oats  in  mixture  with  bur  clover  are  commercially  known 
as  stock  hays,  and  as  such  are  in  active  demand  at  from  $2  to  $5  a  ton 
less  than  tame  oat  hay.  Wild  oats  also  occur  in  grain  fields  in  nearly 
all  sections  of  the  state,  and  frequently  multiply  until  they  become  so 
abundant  that  summer  fallow  must  be  resorted  to,  solely  to  secure 
a  moderately  clean  crop  of  wheat  or  barley.  Cultivated  oat  hay 
always  contains  some  volunteer  wild  oats  and  in  the  flats  to  the 
north  of  San  Pablo  Bay  the  presence  and  persistence  of  wild  oats  is 
a  decisive  factor  in  devoting  large  areas  to  the  production  of  hay 
rather  than  of  grain.  When  wild  oats  occur  abundantly  in  wheat  hay, 
the  product  is  quoted  on  the  market  as  "wheat  and  oat  hay,"  but 
contrary  to  popular  opinion,  cultivated  oats  are  never  planted  with 
wheat  to  produce  the  market  product  known  as  "mixed  wheat  and 
oat  hay."  Neither  are  wild  oats  ever  planted  alone  as  a  field  crop 
in  California,  There  is  no  seed  to  be  had,  and  very  little  is  generally 
known  of  their  relative  productiveness  and  response  to  cultivation. 

In  order  to  study  wild  oats  under  cultivation,  the  writer  succeeded 
in  separating  several  bushels  of  pure  seed  (principally  A.  barb  at  a) 
from  barley  grown  at  Davis,  utilizing  as  the  principle  of  separation 
the  dense  hairy  covering  of  the  seeds,  which  served  to  impale  them  in 
the  meshes  of  a  round-holed  screen,  but  allowed  the  barley  kernel  of 
the  same  and  smaller  diameter  to  pass  through.  Owing  to  their 
hairiness,  and  to  the  geniculate  character  of  the  awns,  the  seed  is  very 
light,  fluffy,  and  difficult  to  manage  when  placed  in  a  grain  drill, 
collecting  in  woolly  balls,  which  do  not  feed  through  the  mechanism 
uniformly.  But  with  considerable  patience  and  some  auxiliary  hand 
planting,  seeding  was  successfully  accomplished  on  two  y1G-aGre 
plots  (fig.  11)  in  a  series  with  twelve  other  cereals  and  a  fair 
degree  of  uniformity  in  stand  obtained.  The  wild  oat  was  in 
no  perceptible  degree  earlier  in  maturity  than  the  California 
Red  oat,  but  paralleled  it  uniformly  throughout  its  development  by 
blossoming  and  reaching  the  "milk"  and  "dough"  stages  simul- 
taneously with  it.  Both  varieties  were  in  the  soft  dough  May  27, 
or  somewhat  earlier  than  the  other  oat  varieties,  but  later  than  the 
barleys  or  wheats,  excepting  Velvet  Don  (table  10).  But  the  wild 
oat  is  peculiar  in  that  the  kernels  ripen  progressively  from  the  top 
spikelets  of  the  panicle  downwards,  and  are  easily  whipped  out  and 


Bull.  394]  CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  37 

fall  to  the  ground  as  they  ripen,  so  that  after  a  strong  wind  the 
empty  panicles  alone  are  held  aloft.  This  peculiarity  accounts  for 
the  difficulty  of  eradicating  it  on  continuously  cropped  grain  land, 
and  imposes  an  insurmountable  obstacle  to  its  culture  as  a  field  crop, 
as  there  would  be  difficulty  in  obtaining  seed  in  any  quantity  unless 
they  were  collected  by  hand  picking  as  they  matured.  It  stood 
about  four  inches  shorter  than  the  red  oat  and  yielded  at  the  rate 
of  5.06  tons  to  the  acre,  or  1.37  tons  less.    This  relative  unproductive- 


Fig.  11. — The  wild  oat  (A.  barbata)  under  domestication.  This  is  one  of 
the  most  useful,  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  most  objectionable  wild  plants 
in  California.  Through  its  drought-resisting  and  evading  properties,  it  has 
greatly  augmented  the  carrying  capacity  of  range  lands,  but  through  the  same 
properties  it  has  assumed  the  role  of  our  most  annoying  grain  field  pest.  It 
offers  little  inducement  for  cultivation,  for  although  it  ripens  at  the  same  time 
as  the  red  oat,  it  lodges  easily  and  is  less  prolific.  Moreover,  the  seed  falls  to 
the  ground  as  it  ripens  and,  because  of  its  hairy  coating  and  twisted  awns,  is 
not  amenable  to  machine  planting.  Part  of  the  seed  remains  dormant  in  the 
soil  one  or  more  years,  which,  coupled  with  its  deciduous  seed  habit,  makes  it 
difficult  to  eradicate  once  it  has  become  entrenched  in  the  soil.  (p.  35.)  Note 
the  abundant  fine  stems  and  foliage. 

ness  of  the  wild  oat  was  here  perceived  more  clearly  than  had  been 
expected  from  previous  casual  comparisons  between  luxuriant  stands 
of  wild  oats  and  neighboring  fields  of  less  thrifty  cultivated  oats. 
The  quality  of  the  hay  was  excellent.  It  possessed  the  finest  stems, 
and  the  stems  composed  the  lowest  percentage  of  the  total  weight  of 
the  plant  of  any  of  the  cereals  examined  excepting  Coast  barley.  The 
leaf  percentage  was  relatively  high  (table  5),  and  it  was  found  to 
be  more  palatable  and  nutritious  than  California  Red  oat  or  Coast- 
jblack  oat  hay  when  fed  as  an  exclusive  diet  to  dairy  heifers  (table  15). 


38  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

It  lodged  more  than  the  California  Red  oat,  and  of  cour.se  could  not 
be  harvested  for  seed;  in  fact,  it  intrenched  itself  so  well  on  these 
two  plots  through  its  deciduous  seed  habit  and  partial  seed  dor- 
mancy that  several  years  were  required  to  eradicate  it. 

Roberts. — A  few  varieties  of  white  oats  are  grown  in  a  small  way 
in  northern  California,  where  climatic  conditions  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  white  oat  districts  of  the  eastern  United  States,  but 
varieties  of  this  class  require  a  long,  cool  growing  season,  with  abun- 
dant moisture,  and  do  not  succeed  well  in  the  Great  Valley. 


'Mm 


Fig.  12. — The  wide  range  of  soils  upon  which  oats  thrive,  coupled  with  their 
low  temperature  requirements,  has  made  them  the  most  popular  of  cereal  crops 
in  the  mountain  valleys  of  northern  and  eastern  California.  Scene  in  Trinity 
County. 

An  exteme  type  of  late  maturing  white  oats. — the  Roberts — 
was  included  in  the  test  for  the  purpose  of  comparison,  and  while 
it  yielded  a  large  tonnage  of  hay  (table  8),  it  proved  too  coarse  and 
too  harsh  in  texture,  particularly  as  a  hay  for  horses.  On  a  rich, 
well  fallowed  soil  at  Davis,  in  a  favorable  season,  it  attained  a  height 
of  64  inches;- "•  and  lodged  badly,  yet  it  was  eaten  readily  by  dairy 
cattle,  which  throve  fairly  upon  it  even  as  an  exclusive  diet.  It 
proved  to  be  the  latest  maturing  cereal  grown  (table  10),  but  pre- 
vious tests  have  repeatedly  demonstrated  its  unsuitability  for  seed 
production  in  any  other  than  the  northern  mountain  and  coast 
districts  of  the  state. 

Burt. — This  is  a  promising  gray-seeded  variety,  which  has  been 
distributed  by  the  Experiment  Station,  and  recommended  for  seed 


BULL.  394]  CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  39 

production  in  the  drier  interior  districts.  It  possesses  early  maturity, 
stiff  straw,  and  a  more  rapid,  erect  winter  growth  than  the  California 
Ked  oat.  It  has  met  with  some  favor  and  the  acreage  has  been 
gradually  extended. 

Guyra  and  Fulglium  are  two  of  the  newer  oats  which  have  given 
promising  grain  yields  at  Davis  in  recent  years,  Their  hay  qualities 
have  not  yet  been  studied. 

Oat  Variety  Trials. — Four  varieties  of  oats,  California  Red,  Coast- 
black,  Roberts,  and  wild  (A.  barbata),  were  grown  on  plots  in  the 
manner  described  on  pages  16  and  27,  and  yields  of  air-dry  hay 
recorded  as  follows: 

TABLE  8 

Hay  Yields  of  Oat  Varieties 

Roberts    6.81  tons  per  acre 

Ccastblack    6.59  tons  per  acre 

California  Bed  - 6.43   tons  per  acre 

Wild  oat 5.06  tons  per  acre/ 

As  a  class  oats  have  proved  more  productive  as  hay  crops  than 
barley,  and  compare  favorably  with  wheat  in  yield.  The  four  vari- 
eties averaged  6.22  tons  per  acre,  as  compared  with  4.49  and  6.84 
tons,  respectively,  for  barley  and  wheat.  There  was  comparatively 
little  difference  in  the  productiveness  of  the  three  cultivated  varieties. 
The  wild  oat  proved  to  be  about  23  per  cent  less  productive  under 
the  conditions  of  the  experiment,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that 
the  stand,  owing  to  planting  difficulties,  was  less  uniform  than  that 
of  the  other  varieties  with  which  it  is  here  compared. 


Rye 

Rye  (fig.  13)  commends  itself  to  the  attention  of  Californian 
farmers  chiefly  because  of  its  aptitude  for  vigorous  growth  in  poor 
soils  and  cold  climates  in  the  northern  mountainous  regions.  Rye 
hay,  because  of  its  dry  and  ligneous  character,  is  less  palatable  to 
livestock  than  hay  of  the  other  cereals,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  not 
entitled  to  consideration  except  in  places  where  the  other  cereals 
cannot  be  successfully  grown.  Such  conditions  occur  chiefly  in 
Modoc,  Lassen,  and  Siskiyou  counties.  Here  rye  may  be  planted  in 
the  fall,  survive  the  freezing  of  the  soil  during  the  winter,  resume 
vigorous  growth  in  the  spring,  and  yield  a  satisfactory  hay  crop 
without   irrigation,    and   with   a   minimum   of   spring    and   summer 


40  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

rainfall.  Rye  is  the  most  certain  and  prolific  cereal  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  ordinary  California  cereal  varieties  winter-kill  when  fall 
planted  under  such  severe  climatic  conditions,  and  are  less  prolific 
than  rye  if  planting  be  delayed  until  spring.  Dry  mountain  ranches, 
without  wild  hay  or  irrigation  for  alfalfa,  use  rye  as  a  hay  crop,  and 
occasionally  a  dairy  herd  is  maintained  throughout  the  winter  months 
on  carefully  made  rye  hay. 


■  . 


Fig.  13. — Rye  commends  itself  to  the  attention  of  California  farmers  as  a 
hay  crop,  chiefly  because  of  its  adaptability  to  poor  soils  and  severe  climates  in 
mountainous  regions.  The  quality  of  the  hay  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  other 
cereals,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  not  entitled  to  serious  consideration  as  a  hay 
crop,  excepting  in  situations  where  the  other  cereals  may  not  be  successfully 
grown.  Rye  generally  exceeds  the  other  cereals  in  height  growth,  but  from  the 
standpoint  of  tonnage  its  appearance  is  deceiving,  and  it  generally  stands  between 
oats  and  wheat  in  yield.  If  cut  in  the  "blossom"  to  produce  hay  comparable 
to  that  of  the  other  cereals  in  quality,  it  becomes  the  least  productive  of  the 
cereals. 

The  commercial  rye  of  California  consists  of  several  types  badly 
mixed  through  hybridization,  although  some  Rosen  rye,  a  hardy 
winter  variety  introduced  from  Russia  by  the  Michigan  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  in  1909,  is  now  being  used  for  fall  planting  in 
the  northern  districts. 

In  comparative  tests  at  Davis,  rye  yielded  at  the  rate  of  6.83  tons 
per  acre,  or  slightly  more  than  the  highest  yielding  barley  variety, 
approximately  the  same  as  the  highest  yielding  oat  variety,  but 
slightly  less  than  the  highest  yielding  wheat  varieties  (table  7).  Rye 
generally  exceeds  the  others  in  height  (fig.  13),  but  the  appearance 


Bull.  394]  CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  41 

of  the  crop  before  harvest  is  deceiving  in  estimating  the  tonnnage. 
Rye  and  barley  both  reached  the  blossom  stage  in  161  days  from 
planting,  considerably  earlier  than  wheat  or  oats  (table  11),  but 
barley  passed  into  the  soft  dough  12  days  thereafter,  while  rye 
required  25  days  (table  11).  But  as  rye  should  be  cut  in  the  blos- 
som, while  barley  should  be  cut  later,  rye  becomes  the  earliest  of  the 
cereal  hay  crops.  It  should  be  remembered  though  that  rye  loses 
more  in  weight  by  early  cutting  than  barley;  that  is,  rye  was  found 
to  gain  2.07  tons  per  acre  in  weight  between  the  "blossom"  and 
"dough"  stages,  while  barley  gained  only  .17  tons  per  acre  (table  9). 
It  is  essential  to  good  quality,  however,  that  rye  be  cut  in  the  blossom 
or  earlier,  and  for  this  reason  it  should  be  regarded  as  falling  in  the 
barley  class  rather  than  the  wheat  and  oat  class  in  productiveness. 
A  physical  analysis  of  "dough"  rye  hay  showed  a  relatively  low 
percentage  of  leaves  and  head  by  weight,  but  the  highest  percentage 
of  stalk  of  any  cereal  examined  (table  5).  Moreover,  the  stalks  were 
exceedingly  tough  and  wiry  in  "dough"  rye  hay,  but  much  better  in 
texture  in  "blossom"  rye  hay.  Nevertheless  the  heifers  fed  an  exclu- 
sive diet  of  "dough"  rye  hay  made  higher  gains  in  body  weight 
than  when  fed  exclusively  on  oat  hay,  but  not  so  great  as  when 
fed  on  wheat  or  barley  hay. 

CULTURE    OF    CEREAL    HAYS 

Soil  Preparation. — Less  labor  is  generally  bestowed  upon  the 
preparation  of  land  for  cereal  hay  than  for  grain,  and  the  deviation 
from  usual  grain  production  practices  is  greatest  in  the  hill  lands. 
Here  deep  tillage  is  infrequent,  and  a  shallow  cultivation  or  disking 
often  replaces  plowing.  The  seed  may  be  broadcasted  either  before 
or  after  this  simple  preparatory  treatment,  and  a  final  harrowing 
may,  or  may  not,  be  given  to  complete  the  planting  operation.  This 
may  be  varied  when  weeds  are  abundant  by  dry  plowing  or  cultiva- 
tion followed  by  harrowing  after  the  first  rain  to  destroy  weeds  before 
planting  (fig.  14).  "Planting  dry"  before  rain  is  more  often  prac- 
ticed in  hay  than  in  grain  production,  partly  because  weeds  are  less 
objectionable  in  hay,  and  partly  because  early  planting  is  more  neces- 
sary for  the  production  of  high  hay  yields  than  for  high  grain  yields. 
Summer  fallowing  is  less  frequent,  but  most  of  the  land  is  pastured 
for  from  one  to  three  years  between  hay  crops.  In  the  Cotati  dis- 
trict a  four-course  rotation  is  followed,  consisting  of  two  successive 
oat  hay  crops,  a  wheat  hay  crop  and  finally  a  summer  fallow.  From 
20  to  40  per  cent  of  the  grain  hay  producers  in  the  hill  lands  of  the 


42  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

central  coast  counties  practice  summer  fallowing,  and  the  number 
increases  to  the  southward  in  the  drier  regions  of  San  Benito  County. 
Occasionally,  hay  fields  are  rolled  after  planting,  for  the  purpose 
of  reducing  clods,  which  in  turn  facilitates  close  mowing,  and  reduces 
the  amount  of  dirt  in  the  crop. 

Such  are  the  simple  preparatory  practices  current  in  the  hill  hay 
lands  of  central  California. 

Time  of  Planting. — Throughout  the  cereal  hay  regions,  early  fall 
planting  is  essential  to  the  production  of  high  yields,  and  it  is  often 
advantageous  to  prepare  the  land  "dry"  and  plant  before  the  first 
rains  in  order  to  secure  the  advantages  of  an  early  fall  growth.  Oats 
are  especially  dependent  upon  early  planting,  and  should  be  planted 
before  the  first  of  the  year,  .except  in  the  cool  coast  or  mountainous 
regions.  Wheat  and  barley  are  more  tolerant  of  late  planting  than  oats, 
but  even  these  are  generally  greatly  reduced  in  yield  by  late  winter  and 
spring  planting.  For  planting  upland  soils  after  January  1,  Cheva- 
lier barley  is  preferred  to  wheat  or  oats,  but  in  dry  spring  seasons 
even  this  "heads  short"  and  gives  scanty  yields.  Good  hay  yields 
ordinarily  cannot  be  expected  from  cereals  planted  after  February  1, 
and  if  planting  has  been  delayed  until  after  that  date  and  a  hay 
crop  is  still  desired,  it  is  generally  advisable  to  delay  planting  until 
about  April  15,  and  then  plant  Sudan  grass,  provided  there  has 
been  sufficient  winter  rains  to  insure  a  crop,  and  the  soil  has  been 
stirred  frequently  enough  to  insure  a  mellow,  moist  seed  bed  at 
planting  time.  (See  Calif.  Bui.  No.  277  "Sudan  Grass" — revised 
edition  1923.) 

Rate  of  Planting. — About  50  per  cent  more  seed  should  be  used 
when  planting  cereals  for  hay  than  when  planting  them  for  grain, 
because  thick  stands  yield  more  and  better  hay  than  thin.  Greater 
uniformity  in  stand  and  product  may  be  effected  by  drilling  the 
seed  than  by  broadcasting  it,  and  25  per  cent  less  seed  is  required. 
The  optimum  amount  in  any  instance  is  initially  a  question  of  soil 
moisture,  and  the  greater  the  amount  of  moisture,  within  certain 
limits,  the  thicker  the  stand  the  land  is  able  to  carry,  and  the  greater 
the  amount  of  seed  it  becomes  advantageous  to  sow.  It  is  recom- 
mended to  drill  120  pounds  of  plump  barleys,  100  pounds  of  plumn 
wheat,  and  90  pounds  of  heavy  oats,  when  fall  planting  on  well 
prepared  average  soils,  in  regions  having  a  normal  rainfall  of  16 
inches  or  more.  With  less  than  12  inches  of  rain,  and  otherwise 
similar  circumstances,  these  amounts  should  be  reduced  25  p?r  cent, 
or  a  similar  reduction  should  be  made  for  late   (January  and  Feb- 


BULL.  394]  CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  43 

ruary)    plantings,  which  in  effect  reduce  the  total  moisture  supply 
available  for  the  crop  to  draw  upon  during  its  life. 

If  broadcasting,  on  the  other  hand,  from  25  to  30  per  cent  more 
seed  should  be  used  than  when  drilling  under  similar  circumstances, 
and  a  cloddy  seed  bed  will  always  require  a  more  generous  appli- 
cation of  seed  in  order  to  secure  a  full  stand  than  one  finely  pre- 
pared. 


jk    w* 


w$«*fpH 


Fig.  14. — Covering  broadcasted  seed  with  the  spring-tooth  harrow.  The  seed- 
ing cart  is  visible  on  the  hillside  above.  This  is  typical  of  the  seeding  practice 
in  the  steep  hill  lands  of  the  cereal  hay  belt.  Note  that  eight  head  of  horses  are 
required  to  pull  "ten  feet  of  harrow"  and  a  riding  sulky  over  the  uneven 
ground. 

MIXED    CEREAL   AND    VETCH    HAY 

Mixed  cereal  and  vetch  hay  is  richer  in  protein  than  pure  cereal 
hay,  and  more  nearly  approaches  alfalfa  in  nutritive  value,  conse- 
quently it  has  been  extensively  utilized  by  dairymen  in  the  unirri- 
gated  coast  districts  of  northern  California,  where  alfalfa  does  not 
thrive.  Vetch,  alone  or  in  mixture,  is  also  used  for  the  improvement 
or  range  land,  and  extensively  as  an  orchard  cover  crop  throughout 
the  fruit  districts,  but  for  the  latter  use,  Purple  vetch  (Vicia  atro- 
purpurea),  because  of  its  more  vigorous  growth,  is  preferred,  and 
seed  for  that  purpose  has  been  extensively  produced  in  the  Rhoner- 
ville-Hydesville  district  of  the  Van  Duzen  Valley  of  Humboldt 
County.  Spring  vetch  (Vicia  satwa),  popularly  known  as  Oregon 
vetch,  is  still  the  favorite  hay  variety  among  dairymen.  The  seed 
is  imported  mainly  from  the  Willamette  Valley  of  Oregon. 


44  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

The  most  frequent  difficulty  in  the  production  of  mixed  hay  is  that 
of  obtaining  a  sufficiently  vigorous  growth  of  vetch  in  mixture  with 
oats,  and  for  this  reason  special  precautions  should  be  taken  to  insure 
the  success  of  the  vetch.  Early  fall  planting  is  generally  attended 
with  better  success  than  winter  or  spring  planting,  for  the  reason 
that  vetch  does  not  grow  so  vigorously  as  oats  during  the  cold  winter 
weather,  and  may  be  overtopped  and  crowded  out  if  not  given  the 
advantage  of  early  seeding.  For  this  reason  it  is  beneficial  to  drill 
the  vetch  about  two  weeks  ahead  of  the  oats,  taking  care  to  set  the 
drill  shallow  for  the  oat  seeding,  in  order  not  to  disturb  the  vetch 
seedlings.  The  amount  of  oat  seed  sown  in  mixture  should  also  be 
reduced  to  about  one-half  that  used  when  planted  for  hay  alone.  A 
good  mixture  consists  of  50  pounds  of  oats  and  30  pounds  of  vetch 
per  acre.  The  two  kinds  of  seed  may  be  mixed  and  drilled  simul- 
taneously, but  separate  drilling  generally  proves  more  satisfactory. 


HAYMAKING 

When  to  Cut. — Cereal  hay  if  fresh  in  appearance,  sweet  smelling, 
and  soft  in  texture,  is  of  high  market  value,  but  to  be  of  high  feed- 
ing value  it  must  also  possess  palatability  and  digestibility.  These 
several  attributes,  collectively  known  as  "quality,"  are  functions 
of  variety,  climate,  and  production  methods,  including  the  all-import- 
ant consideration  of  the  stage  of  maturity  at  which  the  cereal  is  cut 
(fig.  15).  The  current  opinion  among  Calif  ornian  stockmen  is  that 
cereal  hay  of  all  varieties  should  be  cut  in  the  "milk"  if  intended 
for  dairy  cows,  and  in  the  "dough"  if  intended  for  stock  cattle  or 
horses,  but  that  oat  hay  for  driving  or  riding  horses  should  be  cut 
in  the  "milk,"  and  barley  hay  for  work  horses  should  contain  con- 
siderable ripened  grain.  It  is  held  by  some  that  barley  awns  lose 
their  toughness,  and  therefore  become  less  obnoxious  in  feeding  when 
the  barley  is  cut  when  nearly  ripe.  Rye  must  be  cut  in  the  "blossom" 
or  earlier  to  yield  hay  comparable  with  the  others  in  texture  and 
palatability.  The  market  requires  that  cereal  hay  be  of  bright 
color  and  good  aroma,  which  necessitates  early  harvesting,  but  when 
grown  for  home  consumption  far  greater  latitude  of  harvesting  and 
curing  is  practiced.  Locality  also  tends  to  modify  the  practice  in 
time  of  cutting.  For  example,  when  producing  market  hay  in  the 
drier  interior  districts,  it  becomes  necessary  to  cut  greener  in  order 
to  avoid  excessive  bleaching,  but  cereal  hay  from  the  interior  is  nearly 
always  of  inferior  market  grade,  partly  because  the  product  is  intended 


BULL.  394]  CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  45 

primarily  for  home  consumption  and  therefore  less  carefully  made, 
and  partly  because  of  the  difficulty  of  curing  perfectly  and  preserving 
natural  color  under  the  conditions  prevailing.  In  the  humid  coast 
districts,  on  the  other  hand,  bright  natural  color  in  cereal  hay  is  also 
rare,  because  hay  tends  to  assume  a  characteristic  blackened  color 
and  unattractive  appearance  when  cured  in  continuously  foggy  situ- 
ations. In  such  places  curing  is  also  slower,  and  consequently  it  is 
advantageous  to  delay  cutting  until  the  plants  have  attained  more 
advanced  maturity,  because  they  are  then  less  succulent  and  cure 
more  quickly.  This  is  especially  true  of  oats,  because  they  are  more 
leafy  and  succulent,  and  lose  their  moisture  more  slowly  when  bulked 
together  in  the  windrow  or  cock.  In  the  intermediate  climate  of  the 
cereal  hay  belt,  as  typified  by  Sonoma,  Contra  Costa,  and  San  B,enito 
counties,  cereal  hays  are  cured  under  the  most  advantageous  circum- 
stances. The  topography  provides  ideal  soil  and  air  drainage,  the 
atmosphere  is  warm  and  dry  but  tempered  by  proximity  to  the  -sea, 
and  in  most  places  there  are  daily  breezes  which  assist  in  the  evapor- 
ation of  moisture  and  hasten  the  curing  process. 

The  best  barley  hay,  as  conceived  by  the  trade,  has  a  bright 
golden  color,  with  considerable  shriveled  grain  and  brittle  beards; 
the  best  red  oat  hay,  a.  rich  purple  color  with  very  little  "filled" 
grain ;  and  the  best  wheat  hay,  a  pale  green  with  some  shriveled  kernels. 
Rye  hay  should  be  pale  green  and  contain  no  grain.  A  successful 
hay  producer  in  San  Benito  County  summarized  his  experience  as 
follows:  "Wheat  should  be  cut  in  the  'milk,'  just  as  the  stalks  turn, 
creamy  near  the  ground,  but  the  remainder  of  the  plant  is  green. 
Barley  should  be  cut  just  as  the  stalk  and  head  starts  to  turn  a  golden 
color,  but  while  the  leaves  are  still  green.  At  this  stage  the  heads 
will  contain  some  grain.  Oats  should  be  green  all  the  way  down, 
but  just  starting  to  turn  reddish  at  the  bottom.  Wild  oats  are  best 
cut  when  between  the  '  milk '  and  the  dough  \ '  '5 

These  views  coincide  with,  and  are  unconsciously  dictated  by  those 
of  the  wholesale  hay  trade,  and  hay  cut  as  indicated  and  properly  cured 
commands  the  highest  market  price.  But  as  only  a  small  proportion 
of  the  crop  is  marketed,  the  feeder  is  more  concerned  about  the  feed- 
ing value  and  the  yield  of  his  crop  than  about  the  arbitrary  estimate 
of  value  placed  upon  it  by  the  hay  dealers.  In  the  following  pages 
some  experimental  findings  bearing  upon  these  questions  are  given. 

Effect  of  Cutting  Date  Upon  Yield. — To  study  the  relation  of 
maturity   to   yield,   eight   one-hundredth-acre    plots   of   each   of   the 


s  Pacific  Rural  Press,  vol.  95,  p.  577— May  4,  1918. 


46 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


four  cereals  were  planted  on  November  7,  and  duplicate  plots  of 
each  cereal  harvested  successively  upon  arrival  at  the  "blossom," 
"milk,"  "dough,"  and  "ripe"  stages.  The  weights  of  air-dry  hay 
from  these  successive  cuttings  are  recorded  in  table  9. 

TABLE  9 
Yields  of  Cereal  Hay  at  Successive  Stages  of  Maturity 


Average  yield  in  tons  per  acrd* 

Stage  cut 

Wheatf 

Barleyf 

Oatsf 

Ryet 

Blossom... 

6.32 
7.65 
8.20 
7.42 

5.40 
5.70 
5.57 
4.40 

5.95 

•  8.22 
8.32 
7.35 

5.20 

Milk 

7.77 

Soft  dough 

7.27 

Ripe 

7.22 

*  All  lots  of  hay  remained  in  cocks  in  the  field  from  the  time  cut  until  weighed.  The  cutting  time 
ranged  from  April  21  to  June  9.  During  this  period  no  rain  fell.  All  lots  were  weighed  June  19.  During 
the  curing  period  relative  atmospheric  humidities  were  very  low,  the  mean  ranging  from  52  per  cent  to 
62  per  cent  at  8  a.  m.,  and  from  38  per  cent  to  41  per  cent  at  5  p.m.,  with  minimums  as  low  as  21  per  cent. 
The  moisture  content  of  the  several  lots  at  weighing  time  was  uniformly  low,  averaging  about  8.5  per 
cent  (table  13). 

t  The  varieties  used  were  White  Australian  wheat,  Coast  barley,  and  California  Red  oats.  The  rye 
consisted  of  the  mixed  type  grown  in  California. 


The  highest  yield  for  each  cereal  was  obtained  at  a  stage  of 
development  intermediate  between  the  "early  milk"  and  the  "late 
soft  dough,"  but  the  exact  stage  giving  the  highest  yield  in  each 
case  was  not  accurately  determined,  and  this  appeared  to  vary  with 
the  different  cereals  studied.  A  considerable  loss  in  tonnage  was 
observed  through  cutting  at  the  immature  stage,  represented  as 
"blossom,"  and  the  actual  losses  between  "milk"  and  "blossom" 
yields  in  tons  per  acre  were  as  follows :  barle}^  .3,  wheat  1.33,  oats 
2.27,  and  rye  2.57.  There  was  likewise  a  loss  in  tonnage  due  to  allow- 
ing the  hay  to  ripen  too  completely  before  cutting,  and  the  actual 
amounts  lost  in  tons  per  acre  between  hay  cut  in  the  "soft  dough" 
and  that  cut  "ripe"  were  as  follows:  rye  .05,  wheat  .78,  oats  .97, 
and  barley  1.17.  Although  these  losses  were  not  so  great  as  those 
sustained  through  too  early  cutting,  it  was  found  that  rye,  which 
lost  most  through  early  cutting,  lost  least  through  late  cutting,  and 
that  barley,  which  lost  least  through  early  cutting,  lost  most  through 
late  cutting. 

Each  cereal  increased  in  weight  up  to  a  stage  of  development 
peculiar  to  itself,  and  then  underwent  a  diminution  in  weight  as 
complete  maturity  was  approached.  This  loss  in  dry  matter  in  the 
latter  stages  of  development  was  first  called  attention  to,  it  seems, 


Bull.  394] 


CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA 


47 


by  Isidore  Pierre  as  cited  by  Perkins6  in  1864,  and  subsequently  by 
other  investigators,  notably  by  Perkins,  et  al.,7  according  to  whom  it 
is  probably  assignable  to  a  translocation  of  mineral  matter  toward  the 
root  system  as  maturity  advances,  as  well  as  to  the  more  obvious  shat- 
tering of  ripe  grain  and  leaves. 

Number  of  Days  to  Make  the  Crop. — The  varieties  tested  exhibited 
wide  variability  with  respect  to  the  hay  ripening  period,  and  during 
the  1918-1919  season  under  the  conditions  described  on  p.  16,  the 
periods  elapsing  from  planting  to  "soft  dough"  were  as  follows: 

TABLE  10 
No.  of  Days  Required  to  Make  the  Cro>p 

Coast  barley 174 

Chevalier  barley 177 

Nepal  barley 177 

Bye   187 

Early  Baart  wheat   ...".. 190 

Sonora   wheat 192 

Little  Club  wheat  194 

White  Australian  wheat 194 

California  Red  oat 202 

Wild    oat 202 

Velvet  Don  wheat 202 

Goastblack   oat 211 

Roberts  oat  _ 226 

In  general,  barley  was  earliest,  rye  and  wheat  with  some  varietal 
exceptions  were  intermediate,  and  oats  latest.  Velvet  Don  wheat  was 
more  nearly  comparable  with  oats  than  with  the  other  wheats,  and 
most  other  durum  wheats  can  be  similarly  classified. 

The  observations  in  table  11  indicate  the  approximate  duration 
of  the  growth  periods  of  the  several  cereals, 

TABLE  11 
Growth  Periods  of  Wheat,  Barley,  Oats,  and  Rye 


Variety 

Number  of 

days  to 
"blossom" 

Number  of 
days  to 
"milk" 

Number  of 

days  to 
"soft  dough" 

Number  of 
days  to 
"ripe" 

White  Australian  wheat 

Coast  barley 

177 
161 
173 
161 

192 
169 
189 
184 

194 
173 

201 
186 

213 
201 

California  Red  oat 

214 

Rve 

210 

15  Wheat  en  Hay:  Investigations  as  to  What  Stage  of  Development  to  Cut  to 
Best  Advantage.     Dept.  Agr.  of  So.  Aust.  Bui.  No.  73.     1912. 

7  Further  Investigations  into  Factors  Affecting  the  Handling  of  Wheat  Hay, 
Including  a  Study  of  Digestibility.     Dept.  Agr.  So.  Aust.  Bui.  No.  82.     1914. 


48  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

There  are  several  interesting'  relationships  brought  out  here.  It 
will  be  observed  that  Coast  barley  and  rye  both  reached  the  "blos- 
som" stage  in  161  days,  and  approximately  two  weeks  in  advance  of 
wheat  and  oats.  Coast  barley,  however,  reached  the  "milk"  stage 
8  days  later,  while  rye  required  23  days.  In  other  words,  the  barley 
kernel  "filled"  much  more  rapidly  after  fertilization  than  that  of  rye. 
California  Red  oats  required  16  days  from  "blossom"  to  "milk," 
and  White  Australian  wheat  15  days. 

Considering  the  time  elapsing  from  "blossom"  to  "soft  dough" 
as  the  "filling"  period,  we  find  the  following'  relationship  to  have 
existed : 

Coast  barley  12  clays 

White  Australian  wheat 17  clays 

Eye   : 25  clays 

California  Eed  oat  28  clays 

Effect  of  Cutting  Upon  Pal  at  ability. — Four  lots  of  White  Aus- 
tralian wheat  hay — ' '  blossom, "  "  milk, "  "  dough, ' '  and  ' '  ripe, ' '  were 
placed  in  separate  feeding  racks  in  the  dairy  barn  corral  at  11  in 
the  morning  of  July  8,  1919,  and  19  head  of  dairy  stock  given  free 
and  simultaneous  access  to  them.  At  8  the  following  morning  the 
rack  containing  the  "blossom"  lot  was  entirely  emptied,  while  the 
rack  containing  the  other  lots  had  been  sampled  but  not  eaten.  The 
"blossom"  hay,  which  the  cattle  had  elected  to  eat  first,  had  the 
best  color,  aroma  and  texture,  but  the  heads  contained  no  grain  at  all 
(table  12).  By  8  in  the  morning  of  July  10,  46  hours  after  placing  the 
hay  in  the  racks,  the  "milk"  hay  had  been  about  one-half  consumed, 
the  "dough"  hay  one-third  consumed,  but  the  "ripe"  hay  had  been 
tasted  but  not  eaten.  By  8  in  the  morning  of  July  11,  69  hours  after 
placing  the  hay  in  the  racks,  all  of  the  "milk"  and  "dough"  hay  had 
been  eaten,  and  a  small  amount  of  the  "ripe"  lot  (less  than  one- 
tenth)  had  been  eaten.  On  Monday  morning,  July  14,  all  of  the 
"ripe"  hay  had  disappeared. 

From  these  observations,  it  becomes  evident  that  dairy  stock 
prefer  White  Australian  wheat  hay  cut  in  the  "blossom"  to  hay  of 
the  same  variety  cut  at  later  stages  of  development,  and  that  such 
hay  becomes  less  acceptable  as  complete  maturity  is  approached. 
Whether  this  order  of  preference  would  be  shown  for  other  varieties 
of  wheat,  or  for  barley,  oats,  and  rye,  has  yet  to  be  determined. 

Effect  of  Cutting  Date  Upon  Quality. — The  percentage  weight  of 
component  parts  of  the  hay  plant,  such  as  stems,  leaves,  and  heads, 
affords  an  exact  means  of  comparing  the  physical  composition  of  hays 


Bull.  394 


CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA 


49 


of  the  same  kind  but  of  different  degrees  of  maturity.  This  physical 
composition  is  closely  correlated  with  palatability,  chemical  composi- 
tion, and  nutritive  value.  A  sample  of  wheat  hay,  for  example,  cut 
in  the  "milk, "  and  consisting  of  14  per  cent  by  weight  of  heads, 
would  obviously  possess  qualities  different  from  a  second  sample  of 
the  same  variety  cut  "ripe"  and  consisting  of  30  per  cent  of  heads. 
The  physical  analyses  appearing  in  the  following  table  were  made  of 
samples  taken  from  plots  cut  at  successive  stages  of  maturity  to  deter- 
mine yields,  and  are  distinct  from  those  used  in  table  5,  which  were 
taken  from  another  series  of  plots  used  to  determine  the  relative 
productiveness  of  different  varieties  all  cut  in  the  soft  dough. 


•;£■*- 


Fig.  15. — Mowing  oat  hay  in  Yolo  County.  Both  the  yield  and  the  quality  of 
any  cereal  hay  is  largely  determined  by  the  stage  of  maturity  at  which  it  is 
cut;  but  to  realize  the  greatest  possible  value  from  the  crop,  both  the  response  of 
the  individual  variety  to  time  of  cutting,  and  the  special  requirements  of  the 
particular  kind  of  animals  to  consume  it,  must  be  considered,     (pp.  48  to  51.) 

From  this  study  it  appears  that  all  cereals  gained  in  percentage  of 
head  weight  until  the  ' '  soft  dough ' '  was  reached  and  that  wheat  and 
barley  continued  to  gain  in  head  weight  beyond  that  stage,  while 
oats  fell  off  slightly,  and  rye  greatly,  probably  as  a  result  of  shat- 
tering. Diminutions  in  percentage  of  leaves  by  weight  at  successive 
stages  of  development  are  noted;  the  percentage  of  stalk  (culm)  is 
less  regular,  but  appears  to  increase  slightly  from  "blossom"  to 
"milk"  or  "dough"  in  wheat  and  barley,  with  subsequent  diminu- 
tions, to  remain  constant  in  oats,  and  to  increase  with  maturity  in 
rye. 


50 


UNIVERSITY    OP    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


Wheat  loses  its  green  color  more  quickly  as  maturity  is  approached 
than  rye,  and  when  cut  well  toward  maturity  fades  more  than  rye. 
Samples  taken  in  the  "milk"  and  "dough"  become  pale  green,  and 
those  taken  near  maturity  lose  their  green  coloration  completely. 

Barley  retains  an  attractive  green  color  until  the  "early  dough" 
stage,  but  since  its  maturation  period  is  very  short  (table  11),  the 
actual  time  during  which  it  may  be  ' '  cut  for  color ' '  is  very  short. 

TABLE  12 
Effect  of   Cutting  Date  Upon  Physical   Composition 


Variety 

Stage  of 

development 

cut 

Per  cent  by 

weight  of 

culms  (stems) 

cut  4  inches 

above  root 
and  one  inch 

below  head 

Per  cent  by 
weight  of 
leaves  includ- 
ing sheath 

Per  cent  by 

weight  of 
heads  includ- 
ing grain 

White  Australian  wheat... 

Blossom 

Milk 

44 

41 
47 
44 

42 
42 
34 

26 

14 
17 

Soft  dough 

Ripe.. .. 

19 

30 

Blossom.. 

40 
42 

38 
29 

38 
31 
27 
24 

22 

Coast  barley 

Milk.  . 

27 

Soft  dough 

Ripe 

35 
47 

California  Red  oat 

Blossom 

Milk 

41 
43 

38 
41 

42 
30 
25 
25 

17 

27 

Soft  dough 

Ripe 

37 
34 

Blossom... 

50 
59 
56 
60 

33 
22 
23 

26 

17 

Rye 

Milk  .. 

19 

Soft  dough 

Ripe 

21 
14 

California  Red  oat  hay  retains  the  best  natural  color  when  cut  in 
the  "milk,"  but  often  retains  a  soft  texture  when  cut  well  on  toward 
maturity. 

Rye  hay  becomes  very  tough  and  unpalatable  toward  maturity, 
and  should  be  cut  in  the  "blossom"  or  earlier  in  order  to  compare 
favorably  with  the  other  cereals  in  palatability.  Rye  retains  its  green 
color  into  advanced  stages  of  maturity,  later  perhaps  than  any  of  the 
other  cereals,  a  circumstance  which  illustrates  that  color  alone  is  not 
an  infallible  index  to  quality. 


Bull.  394] 


CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA 


51 


Effect  of  Cutting  Date  Upon  Chemical  Composition. — Composite 
samples,  consisting  of  several  plants,  were  taken  of  wheat,  barley,  oats, 
and  rye  at  successive  stages  of  maturity,  and  prepared  for  chemical 
analysis  by  curing  indoors  under  comparable  conditions,  and  the  roots 
with  about  four  inches  of  the  culms  discarded  before  chopping  for 
analysis.    The  results  of  these  analyses  are  summarized  in  table  13. 


TABLE    13 

Efffct  of  Cutting  Date  Upon  Chemical  Composition' 


Variety 

Stage  of 

development 

cut 

Per 
cent 

moist- 
ure 

Per 
cent 

ash 

Per 
cent 
pro- 
tein 

Per 

cent 
fat 

Per 
cent 
crude 
fiber 

Per 

cent 

carbo- 

hy- 

drates 

Blossom 

8.0 
7.2 
8.0 
8.0 

8.7 
8.9 
8.4 
5.7 

5.8 
6.9 
6.8 
5.7 

2.1 

1.2 

1.0 

.9 

34.6 
33.3 
31.1 

38.0 

40.8 

White  Australian  wheat 

Milk.  . 

42.5 

Soft  dough 

Ripe 

44.7 
41.7 

Coast  barley 

Blossom 

Milk 

8.7 
9.7 
9.0 

8.7 

6.3 
5.0 
5.3 
4.7 

8.0 
9.1 
8.6 
7.4 

1.6 

1.7 
2.2 

2.4 

28.0 
25.8 
23.3 
23.8 

47.4 

48.7 

Soft  dough 

Ripe 

51.6 
53.0 

Blossom 

8.3 

9.3 

10.0 

8.0 

5.3 
5.7 
3.7 
5.3 

8.4 
6.6 
6.1 
5.7 

1.8 
2.5 
2.5 
1.9 

31.6 
34.3 
29.7 
33.4 

44.6 

California  Red  oat 

Milk 

41.6 

Soft  dough 

Ripe 

48.0 
45.7 

Rye 

Blossom 

Milk 

7.7 
9.3 

7.7 
7.7 

6.0 
4.7 
5.0 

8.0 

9.8 
7.3 

8.4 
4.7 

1.5 
1.7 
1.7 
1.7 

42.4 
34.4 
33.6 
41.0 

32.6 
42.6 

Soft  dough 

Ripe 

43.6 
36.9 

*  Analyses  by  J.  H.  Norton,  Instructor  in  Chemistry,  and  R.  J.  Slama. 

In  these  analyses  the  following  points  are  brought  out : 

1.  The  percentage  of  moisture  has  not  been  influenced  in  any 
regular  manner  by  the  stage  of  maturity  of  the  crop  when  cut. 

2.  The  percentage  of  ash  or  mineral  matter  has  shown  a  tendency 
to  decline  as  maturity  is  approached. 

3.  The  proteins  are  less  abundant  in  the  advanced  stages  of  develop- 
ment than  in  the  immature  stages,  and  showed  a  falling  off  in  all 
cases  from  "soft  dough"  to  "ripe." 

4.  There  appears  to  be  very  little  difference  in  the  proportion  of 
fat  present  in  hay  of  the  same  kind  cut  at  different  stages  of  maturity. 


52  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

5.  The  percentage  of  crude  fiber  was  highest  in  rye  and  lowest  in 
barley,  and  increased  in  all  cereals  from  "soft  dough"  to  "ripe." 

6.  The  percentage  of  carbohydrates  showed  an  increase  in  all 
cereals  from  "blossom"  to  "milk,"  except  in  the  case  of  oats,  and 
a  decrease  between  "soft  dough"  and  "ripe"  in  all  cereals  except 
barley. 

The  above  evidence  confirms  the  current  opinion  that  barley,  wheat 
and  oats  should  be  cut  in  the  "milk"  when  intended  for  dairy  cattle 
or  saddle  horses,  and  in  the  "soft  dough"  when  intended  for  work 
horses,  mules,  or  stock  cattle.  Rye  should  be  cut  in  the  "blossom"  or 
earlier  for  all  purposes. 

CURING 

There  is  a  great  difference  between  well  cured  hay  and  mere  sun- 
dried  fodder,  although  both  may  be  made  under  similar  conditions. 
One  has  been  protected  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  by  proper 
manipulation  in  the  windrow,  cock  and  stack,  while  the  other  has  been 
left  exposed  in  the  swath  or  windrow  until  dry  and  bleached.  The 
leaves  of  one  have  remained  alive  long  enough  to  transpire  naturally 
a  large  percentage  of  the  moisture  from  the  stems,  while  the  leaves 
of  the  other  have  died  quickly  from  exposure,  thereby  checking  the 
biological  processes,  known  as  fermenting,  heating,  and  sweating, 
which  commonly  occur  in  the  cock  and  stack,  and  which  are  essential 
to  the  perfect  curing  of  hay. 

One  possesses  a  fine  lavender-like  aroma,  is  soft  and  pliable,  and 
appetizing  to  stock,  while  the  other  would  not  be  eaten  by  well  fed 
animals  and  would  serve  merely  to  keep  cattle  from  starvation. 

Curing  may  be  said  to  commence  the  instant  the  crop  falls  behind 
the  mower,  and  to  continue,  when  properly  carried  out,  for  six  weeks. 
When  cut,  the  crop  may  consist  of  75  per  cent  of  moisture,  and  when 
fully  and  perfectly  cured  from  15  to  20  per  cent,  or  even  as  little 
as  8  per  cent  when  shock  cured  in  an  arid  climate,  but  curing  is  more 
than  a  mere  mechanical  drying,  and  cannot  be  accelerated  beyond 
certain  limits  without  injury  to  the  quality  of  the  hay. 

The  initial  step  of  wilting  may  occur  within  an  hour  or  two  under 
the  influence  of  a  hot  sun  and  dry  atmosphere,  but  usually  several 
hours  of  bright  sunshine  are  required,  and  occasionally,  in  humid 
localities,  the  crop  must  lie  in  the  swath  two  or  more  days  before  it 
has  lost  sufficient  moisture  to  be  safely  raked.  The  usual  assumption 
is  that  a  crop  mown  in  the  morning  during  fair  weather  may  be 
raked  in  the  afternoon,  but  in  any  event  the  crop  should  not  be  left 


Bull.  394]  CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  53 

in  the  swath  longer  than  is  essential  to  the  loss  of  sufficient  moisture 
to  permit  of  its  being  raked  into  windrows.  Hay  should  never  be 
raked  when  damp  with  dew  or  fog,  and  in  the  coast  districts  it  is 
well  understood  that  the  mower  should  not  be  sent  into  the  field  in 
the  morning  until  the  sun  has  dried  the  fog  from  the  leaves. 

Raking  into  windrows  is  the  first  step  in  the  curing  process,  and 
is  indispensable  in  the  bulking  together  of  the  crop.  Hay  should  not 
remain  in  the  windrow  longer  than  is  necessary,  and  under  average 
climatic  conditions  two  or  three  days  in  the  windrow  is  long  enough ; 
but  in  the  dry  climate  of  the  Great  Valley  cocking  generally  may, 
and  should  follow  raking  almost  immediately,  leaving  the  crop  in 
the  windrow  only  long  enough  to  bunch  it.  Experienced  producers 
consider  windrowed  cereal  hay  dry  enough  to  cock  when  it  rattles 
slightly  upon  being  disturbed  with  the  foot.  If  left  in  the  windrow 
longer  than  necessary,  there  is  too  great  exposure  to  sunlight,  the 
leaves  die,  and  the  curing  process  is  cut  short. 

The  cock,  or  shock  (fig.  2)  affords  greater  protection  than  the 
windrow  (fig.  3),  and  prolongs  the  curing  process;  but  since  it  does 
not  afford  perfect  protection,  hay  should  remain  in  the  shock  only 
long  enough  to  prepare  it  for  the  stack.  Under  average  conditions  this 
requires  about  two  weeks.  A  simple  test  to  determine  the  fitness  of 
the  crop  for  baling  or  stacking  consists  of  taking  a  wisp  from  near 
the  center  of  the  shock  near  the  ground  and  twisting  it  tightly  between 
the  hands,  like  wringing  a  cloth.  If  visible  traces  of  moisture  remain 
on  the  hands,  the  crop  is  considered  too  moist  to  bale  or  stack.  Another 
test  is  to  break  the  stems  at  the  joints,  and  if  they  have  become  dry 
enough  to  snap  the  crop  may  safely  be  stacked  or  baled. 

If  hay  is  to  be  baled  directly  from  the  shock  without  stacking,  the 
shocks  should  be  made  large,  from  800  to  1200  pounds  in  each,  in 
order  to  provide  greater  protection  and  prolong  the  curing  process. 
Hay  does  not  cure  completely  in  the  shock,  however,  even  in  large 
shocks,  because  it  loses  its  moisture  too  rapidly;  and  for  this  reason, 
if  it  is  to  be  stacked,  this  should  be  done  while  the  hay  is  still  moist 
enough  to  fully  complete  the  curing  processes  in  the  stack. 

STACKING 

The  curing  process  is  carried  to  completion  in  the  stack,  where, 
if  sufficient  moisture  is  present,  sweating,  heating,  and  fermentation 
may  continue  for  from  four  to  six  weeks,  imparting  to  the  hay  its 
richest  aroma  and  softest  texture,  at  the  same  time  diminishing  the 
fiber  content,  and  increasing  the  relative  amount  of  nitrogen  free 


54  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA—EXPERIMENT    STATION 

extract  and  other  nutrients.  Morever,  ''stack-cured"  hay,  because 
of  its  greater  uniformity  in  color  and  moisture  content,  presents  a 
more  attractive  appearance  when  baled  than  "shock-cured"  hay. 

But  only  a  small  part  of  the  Californian  cereal  hay  crop  is  stacked 
before  baling,  and  this  originates  chiefly  in  the  San  Francisco  Bay 
region  and  about  Hollister.  It  supplies  special  markets  requiring 
hay  of  the  highest  quality,  such  as  riding  academies,  eastern  racing 
stables,  and  the  United  States  Army. 

To  facilitate  baling,  each  stack  should  contain  not  less  than  25 
tons,  or  sufficient  to  supply  one  "setting"  of  the  press,  and  should 
be  built  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  wind,  on 
level  ground  in  the  open  field.  A  high,  narrow  stack,  not  more  than 
20  feet  in  width,  is  more  conveniently  baled  and  with  less  labor  than 
a  broader  one.  The  unstacking  process  is  more  easily  accomplished  if 
each  load  is  well  distributed  over  the  surface  upon  arrival,  rather 
than  piled  a  load  in  a  place.  A  good  stacker  moves  about  the  stack 
constantly  and  always  keeps  the  center  higher  than  the  sides.  Stacks 
made  in  this  way  shed  the  rain  more  effectively,  cure  more  uniformly, 
pitch  into  the  press  more  easily,  and  pack  more  compactly  and  uni- 
formly in  the  bale  than  those  made  less  systematically. 

Many  experienced  producers  also  maintain  "off-grade"  stacks, 
to  which  all  weedy  shocks  are  diverted,  and  also  exercise  care  in  sepa- 
rating clods  from  the  bunches  as  they  arrive  at  the  stack. 

ESTIMATING    TONNAGE    IN    STACKS 

The  rules  for  calculating  the  volume  of  hay  stacks  correspond  to 
those  employed  in  calculating  of  volume  of  solid  bodies  generally. 
The  volume  of  one  ton  of  stacked  cereal  hay  depends  upon  its  age, 
condition,  and  variety.  Freshly  stacked  cereal  hay  may  vary  from 
540  to  590  cubic  feet  per  ton;  the  same  hay  after  80  days  of  settling 
may  measure  only  from  510  to  540  cubic  feet  per  ton;  and  when 
old  and  fully  settled  as  little  as  421  cubic  feet  may  weigh  one  ton. 
The  rules  in  general  use  for  estimating  the  tonnage  content  of  stacks 
are  given  below : 

The  Frye-Bruhn  Ride. — This  rule,  named  after  the  Frye-Bruhn 
Company  of  Seattle,  has  come  to  be  widely  used  in  the  western  states, 
but  it  is  accurate  for  one  shape  of  stack  only,  namely,  one  with  a 
cross-section  similar  to  that  represented  by  No.  7,  fig.  16.  That  is, 
low, -with  comparatively  high  sides  and  flat  crown.  It  has  has  been 
found  to  overestimate  by  about  1  per  cent  higher,  fuller  stacks, 
such  as  are  represented  by  No.   8,   fig.   16,   and  to  overestimate   by 


BULL.  394]  CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  55 

about  7  per  cent  very  high,  full  stacks,  such  as  are  represented 
by  No.  9.  For  the  other  six  shapes,  represented  in  fig.  16,  it  varies 
from  2  per  cent  to  17  per  cent  too  low. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  width  in  feet  by  the  length  in  feet,  by  one-half 
the  difference  between  the  ' '  over ' '  in  feet  and  width  in  feet,  and  divide 
the  product  by  512 ;  the  quotient  will  be  the  estimated  number  of  tons  of 
hay  in  a  three-month-old  stack. 

W  x  L  x  y2    (O  —  W) 
Formula. — =jg •  =  No.  of  tons  in  stack. 

In  the  above  formula,  W  =  width  in  feet,  L  =  length  in  feet,  and  O  = 
over  in  feet,  or  the  distance  from  the  ground  on  one  side  straight  over 
the  stack  to  the  ground  on  the  other  side. 

Example. — How  many  tons  of  hay  in  a  three-months  stack,  45  feet 
long,  24  feet  wide,  and  120  feet  over? 

24  x  45  x  y2    (120  —  24) 
Solution.— fto —  101.  +   tons. 

The  Quartermasters'  Ride. — This  rule,  sometimes  referred  to  as 
the  Government  Rule,  is  accurate  for  one  shape  of  stack  only,  namely, 
that  with  a  cross-section  similar  to  that  represented  by  No.  7,  fig.  16 ; 
that  is,  low,  with  comparatively  high  sides  and  fiat  crown.  It  under- 
estimates from  1  per  cent  to  2  per  cent  stacks  of  the  shape  represented 
by  Nos.  5  and  6,  and  may  vary  from  13  per  cent  too  low  to  12  per 
cent  too  high  for  the  other  shapes  represented  in  fig.  16. 

Rule. — Add  the  "over"  and  "width,"  and  divide  by  4;  multiply  the 
result  by  itself,  and  then  by  the  length,  and  divide  by  512. 

Formula. —  ]        4        J  AT      ,         .       ,     , 

_^ I —  No.  tons  m  stack. 

512 

In  this  formula  O  =  "over,"  W  =  width,  and  L  =  length. 

Example. — How  many  tons  of  hay  in  a  three-month  old  stack,  45  feet 

long,  24  feet  wide,  and  112  feet  "over"? 

/  112  +  24\2 

X   40 

101. +   tons. 
512 

The  Department  Rule* — "The  volume  of  a  stack  is  equal  to  its 
length  multiplied  by  the  area  of  its  cross  section.  The  length  is  easily 
measured.  Let  us  consider  the  principles  involved  in  measuring  the 
area  of  the  cross  section.  If  the  top  of  the  stack  were  prefectly  flat, 
and  the  two  sides  straight  up  and  down,  the  area  of  the  cross  section 
would  simply  be  the  width  multiplied  by  the  height.     If  the  stack 


Solution. —  \  4        J 


*  This  rule  was  devised  by  McClure  and  Spillman  of  the  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  and  is  taken  from  Circular  No.  67  of  the  Office  of  the  Secretary, 
U.  S.  D.  A.,  Dec.  9,  1916.  It  is  the  most  accurate  and  generally  applicable  of 
the  rules  here  given. 


56  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

were  triangular  in  cross  section,  so  that  the  sides  represented  straight 
lines  from  the  top  of  the  stack  to  the  bottom  on  each  side,  the  area 
of  the  cross  section  would  be  one-half  of  the  product  of  the  base  and 
the  height.  The  actual  area  of  the  cross  section  lies  somewhere  between 
these  two. 

It  is  difficult  to  measure  accurately  the  height  of  a  stack.  It  is 
much  easier  to  measure  the  "over,"  which  is  the  distance  from  the 
ground  on  one  side  of  the  stack  over  the  top  of  the  stack  to  the  ground 
on  the  other  side.  The  length  of  the  "over"  depends  upon  three 
things:  (1)  width,  (2)  height,  and  (3)  "fullness"  of  the  stack.  The 
"over"  is  always  somewhat  more  than  twice  the  height. 

It  has  been  found  by  actual  measurement  that  the  cross  section 
of  a  stack  is  the  product  of  the  "over"  and  the  width,  multiplied 
by  a  fraction  varying  from  0.25  to  0.37  (average  value,  0.31), 
according  to  the  height  and  fullness  of  the  stack.  If  the  stack  is 
low  in  comparison  with  its  width  and  nearly  triangular  in  outline — 
that  is,  its  sides  are  not  very  full — the  fraction  is  small  (0.25).  If 
the  stack  is  tall  in  comparison  with  its  width,  and  the  sides  are  very 
full,  so  that  the  top  is  well  rounded,  the  fraction  is  large  (0.37). 
Representing  this  fraction  by  F,  the  over  by  O,  the  width  by  W,  and 
the  length  of  the  stack  by  L,  the  volume  being  represented  by  V, 
we  have  the  following  formula  for  determining  the  number  of  cubic 
feet  in  a  stack : 

Volume  ==  Fraction  x  Over  x  Width  x  Length  or,,  as  commonly 
written, 

V   =   FOWL 

The  fact  that  the  right-hand  member  of  this  formula  spells  the 
word  ' '  fowl ' '  makes  it  easy  to  remember. 

Figure  16  shows  the  cross  sections  of  haystacks  of  nine  different 
shapes,  the  corresponding  value  of  the  fraction  F  for  each  of  these 
shapes  being  inserted  in  the  outline  of  each  cross  section.  The  height 
of  stacks  Nos,  1,  4,  and  7  (upper  row)  is  three-fourths  the  width. 
The  height  of  stacks  Nos.  2,  5  and  8  (middle  row)  is  equal  to  width, 
while  the  height  of  stacks  Nos.  3,  6,  and  9  (lower  row)  is  one  and 
one-fourth  times  the  width.  Stacks  Nos.  1,  2  and  3  (left  column) 
are  narrow  or  nearly  triangular  in  outline;  stacks  Nos.  4,  5,  and  6 
(middle  column)  are  medium  full,  while  stacks  Nos.  7,  8,  and  9 
(right  column)  are  full  and  rounded.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
value  of  F  is  the  same  (0.31)  in  Nos.  3,  5  and  7 ;  in  Nos,  2  and  4  it  is 
(0.28),  and  in  Nos.  6  and  8  (0.34). 

In  attempting  to  find  the  volume  of  haystacks  the  choice  between 
these  various  values  of  F  may  be  found  by  comparing  the  shape 


Bull.  394] 


CEREAL    HAY    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA 


57 


of  the  end  of  the  stack — that  is,  the  cross  section  of  the  stack — 
with  stacks  Nos.  1  to  9  in  figure  16.  If  the  shape  of  the  stack  to 
be  measured  is  intermediate  between  those  shown  in  figure  26  inter- 
mediate values  of  F  may  be  used.  The  use  of  the  above  formula 
may  be  made  clear  by  a  few  examples." 

Example  1. — A  haystack  is  16  feet  wide,  24  feet  long,  and  the  over  is 
31.2  feet.  The  end  view  indicates  that  the  shape  of  the  stack  is  very 
close  to  No.  4  in  figure  26.     What  is  the  volume  of  the  stack. 

Solution:     V  =  0.28  x  31.2  x  16  x  24  =  3354.+  cubic  feet. 

Example  2. — A  haystack  is  14  feet  wide,  20  feet  long,  and  the  over  is 
34.2  feet.     Inspection  of  the  end  of  the  stack  shows  that  it  is  of  the  type 
of  No.  8  in  figure  26.    What  is  the  volume  of  the  stack? 
Solution :     V  —  0.34  x  34.2  x  14  x  20  =  3255.+  cubic  feet. 


/       NO.  4       \ 

in 

/             F  .28           \ 

2  2 

Cross  sections  of  hay  stacks  of  different  shapes. 
(After  McClure  and  Spillman.) 


58  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

Estimating  Bound  Stacks.8 — "There  is  no  established  rule  for 
measuring  round  stacks,  but  this  one  will  approximate  the  contents 
of  a  stack  of  ordinary  conical  form.  Find  the  circumference  at 
or  about  the  base  or  'bulge/  at  a  height  that  will  average  the  base 
from  there  to  the  ground ;  find  the  vertical  height  of  the  measured 
circumference  from  the  ground,  and  the  slant  height  from  the  meas- 
ured circumference  to  the  top  of  the  stack,  taking  all  measurements 
in  feet.  Multiply  the  circumference  by  itself  and  divide  by  100 
and  multiply  by  8,  then  multiply  the  result  by  the  height  of  the 
base,  plus  one-third  of  the  slant  height  of  top."  This  will  give 
the  estimated  volume  of  the  stack  in  cubic  feet.  To  estimate  the 
tonnage,  divide  by  the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  a  ton.  The  hay  in 
a  round  stack  is  usually  less  compact  than  in  a  rectangular  stack, 
hence  a  greater  number  of  feet  should  be  allowed  for  a  ton,  with 
well-settled  hay  probably  512  cubic  feet. 


Kans.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  No.  155,  p.  259.     June,  1908. 


Bull.  394] 


FEEDING    TRIALS    WITH    CEREAL    HAYS 


59 


II.     FEEDING  TRIALS  WITH  CEREAL  HAYS 

F.   W.  WOLL* 


Three  series  of  feeding  trials  with  grain  hays  were  conducted 
at  the  University  Farm  during  1919  and  1920,  as  follows: 

I.  In  the  summer  of  1919,  with  grain  hay  grown  at  the  University 
Farm  in  the  field  trials  described  in  the  preceding  pages,  namely : 
with  three  varieties  of  barley  hay,  and  one  variety  of  rye  hay. 

II.  During  January  to  March,  1920,  with  one  lot  each  of  wheat 
hay  and  of  oat  hay,  purchased  in  the  open  market  as  representative 
lots  of  No.  1  grade  hay. 

III.  During  the  summer  of  1919,  with  one  variety  each  of  wheat, 
rye,  oat  and  barley  hay  grown  at  the  University  Farm  in  the  field 
trials  described  in  the  preceding  pages. 

The  three  feeding  trials  will  be  described  in  the  order  given  and 
the  results  secured  briefly  discussed. 

First  Feeding  Trial,  June-July,  1919. — The  trials  were  conducted 
with  seven  lots  of  four  dairy  heifers  each,  ranging  in  age  at  the 
beginning  of  the  trials  from  nine  to  thirty-three  months  old,  and 
in  body  weight  from  560  to  1172  lbs.  Each  lot  was  composed  of 
one  Jersey  heifer  and  either  three  Holstein  heifers,  two  Holstein 
and  one  Ayrshire,  or  two  Holstein  and  one  Guernsey,  the  aim  being 
to  make  the  different  lots  as  similar  as  possible  as  to  breed,  age, 
and  body  weight.  The  average  initial  age  and  weights  of  the  different 
lots  at  the  time  the  trials  were  planned  on  June  2d  were  as  follows : 


Lot 

I 

Lot 
II 

Lot 
III 

Lot 
IV 

Lot 
V 

Lot 
VI 

Lot 
VII 

Average  age,  months 

Average  weight,  pounds 

24 

857 

20 
860 

19 

853 

21 

879 

22 
864 

21 

863 

18 
853 

The  lots  were  kept  in  adjoining  corrals  west  of  the  University 
dairy  barn  (fig.  17),  where  they  had  access  to  fresh  drinking  water 
and  salt.  Each  lot  was  fed  one  kind  of  hay  as  sole  feed  throughout 
the  trials.  This  was  placed  in  the  racks  at  the  beginning  of  the 
experiment,  the  racks  being  filled  as  needed.     When  the  supply  of 


Died  Dec.  5,  1922. 


60  UNIVERSITY    OP    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

one  kind  of  hay  was  all  gone,  the  amounts  of  hay  remaining  in  the 
other  racks  or  in  the  stacks  were  weighed  back.  The  following  kinds 
of  cereal  hay  were  fed  in  the  trials : 

Barley  hay :  Coast,  Chevalier,  and  Nepal. 

Oat  hay :  California  Red,  Coastblack,  Roberts,  and  Wild. 

Wheat   hay:    White    Australian,    Little    Club,    Sonora,    Early 
Baart,  and  Velvet  Don  (durum). 

Rye  hay :  California. 
Seven  of  the  grain  hays,  namely,  three  barley  and  four  oat  hays, 
were  fed  in  the  first  period  of  the  trials,  June  17  to  July  2,  and  six 
hays,  namely,  five  wheat  and  one  rye,  were  fed  during  the  second  per- 
iod, July  19  to  26.  The  heifers  received  an  average  ration  of  about  32 
lbs.  of  green  alfalfa  and  10  lbs.  of  sorghum  silage  a  day  previous  to 
the  beginning  of  the  first  period,  and  alfalfa  hay  was  fed  during  the 
week  intervening  between  the  two  periods.  They  were  weighed  the 
first  time  on  June  2,  and  again  on  two  successive  days  at  the  begin- 
ning and  the  end  of  the  trial ;  also  once  at  the  middle  of  each  period. 
It  is  not  possible  under  the  method  of  corral  feeding  practiced  to 
differentiate  between  the  amount  of  hay  actually  eaten  by  the  stock 
and  that  wasted  by  being  pulled  out  of  the  racks  and  trampled  upon  on 
the  ground.  A  careful  estimate  of  the  amount  of  hay  wasted  was,  how- 
ever, made  at  the  end  of  each  period,  and  the  different  hays  were 
accordingly  placed  as  follows,  in  order  of  decreasing  amounts  of  waste  : 
California  Red  oat,  Coastblack  oat,  Nepal  barley,  Roberts  oat,  Coast 
barley,  Chevalier  barley,  and  wild  oat.  The  preceding  order  of  waste 
may  not  be  absolutely  correct,  but  the  following  classification  is 
doubtless  reliable  and  may  be  taken  as  an  indication  of  relative 
palatability : 

Light  waste :  Wild  oat,  Chevalier  barley. 

Medium  waste :  Coast  barley. 

Heavy  waste :  Roberts  oat,  Nepal  barley,  California  Red  oat, 
Coastblack  oat,  and  rye. 
Chemical  analyses  of  samples  of  the  cereal  hays  fed  were  made 
by  Mr.  J.  H.  Norton,  with  the  results  as  shown  in  table  14. 

It  will  be  noted  from  the  data  presented  that  considerable  differ- 
ences occurred  in  the  chemical  composition  of  the  different  kinds  of 
grain  hay,  but  that  the  average  composition  of  these  did  not  differ 
materially  as  regards  total  components.  Owing  to  the  lack  of  diges- 
tion trials  with  different  varieties  and  kinds  of  grain  hays,  the 
amounts  of  digestible  components  present  in  each  cannot  be  definitely 
stated,  and  any  estimate  of  such  would  be  of  doubtful  value  in  view 


Bull.  394] 


FEEDING    TRIALS    WITH    CEREAL    HAYS 


61 


of  the  variations  in  the  composition  and  physical  appearance  of 
the  different  hays.  Considering  the  total  amounts  of  the  various 
feed  components  in  the  grain  hay,  it  may  be  noted,  however,  that 
barley  hay  is,  on  the  average,  higher  in  protein  than  any  of  the  others, 
rye  and  Velvet  Don  hay  coming  next,  with  oat  and  wheat  hay  low- 
est.    The  average  fiber  contents  increased  in  the  following  order : 


TABLE    14 
Chemical  Composition  of  Cereal  Hays  in  Percentages 


Moisture 


Protein 


Fat 


Fiber 


Starch, 

sugar, 

etc. 


Ash 


Barley: 

Chevalier 

Coast 

Nepal 

Average 

Oats: 

California  Red 

Coastblack 

Roberts 

Wild 

Average 

Wheat: 

White  Australian 

Early  Baart 

Little  Club 

Sonora 

Average 

Velvet  Don 

Rye ..... 


9.0 

7.7 
8.0 
8.2 


8.0 
6.3 

5.7 
6.0 
6.5 


7.0 

8.7 
7.7 
7.7 
7.8 
7.3 

8.3 


8.1 

10.1 

7.4 

8.5 


6.2 

6.9 
7.1 
5.8 
6.5 


5.2 
6.7 
6.0 
6.6 
6.4 
7.4 

7.4 


1.6 
1.5 
2.0 
1.7 


2.7 
2.3 
1.8 
2.1 
2.2 


1.5 
1.0 
2.2 
.5 
1.3 
2.2 

2.3 


29.3 
31.6 
26.8 
29.2 


27.6 
38.1 
37.7 
33.3 
34.2 


30.5 
31.0 
34.6 
31.1 

31.8 
32.9 

34.1 


44.3 
42.1 
48.8 
45.2 


50.2 
41.1 
41.7 
46.8 
45.0 


48.8 
44.8 
42.5 
47.0 
45.8 
44.5 

42.6 


7.7 
7.0 
7.0 

7.2 


5.3 

5.3 
6.0 
6.0 
5.6 


7.0 
7.8 
7.0 
7.0 
6.9 
5.7 

5.3 


oats,  rye,  Velvet  Don,  wheat,  and  barley  hay.  The  average  fat  con- 
tent of  rye,  Velvet  Don  and  oat  hay  differed  but  slightly,  and  was 
higher  than  that  of  barley  and  wheat  hay,  while  the  group  known 
as  nitrogen-free  extract  (starch,  sugar,  etc.)  decreased  as  follows: 
wheat,  barley,  oats,  Velvet  Don,  and  rye  hay. 

On  the  basis  of  the  results  of  the  chemical  analyses  alone,  without 
considering  the  digestibility  of  the  various  kinds  of  hay,  one  would 
be  justified  in  placing  barley  as  the  most  valuable  hay  from  the 
feeder's  point  of  view,  on  account  of  its  high  protein  and  starch 
contents  and  its  low  fiber  content.     Wheat  was  next,  and  oat  and 


62 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


rye  as  least  valuable.  The  variations  in  chemical  composition  are, 
however,  not  marked,  and  the  number  of  analyses  small,  so  that 
general  conclusions  on  this  point  cannot  be  safely  drawn,  and  the 
preceding  comparisons  as  to  relative  feeding  value  can  only  be  con- 
sidered suggestive. 

Table  15  shows  in  summary  the  results  obtained  as  regards  the 
amounts  of  hay  eaten,  the  gains  in  body  weight  of  the  heifers,  the 
amount  of  hay  eaten  (or  wasted)  per  pound  of  gain  in  body  weight, 
and  the  gains  made  per  hundred  pounds  of  hay. 


TABLE    15 

Summary  of  Eesults  in  Feeding   Trials  for  1919 


Amount  eaten 

Gain  in  body 
weight 

Rank 

Hay 

eatea 

(and 

wasted) 

Per  lb. 

gain, 

lbs. 

100  lbs.  hay 
produced 

Hay  fed 

Total, 
lbs. 

Per 

head 

per  day, 

lbs. 

Per 

lot, 
lbs. 

Per 

head 

per  day, 

lbs. 

Gain 

in 

weight 

lbs. 

Gain 
per 

acre, 
lbs. 

Rank 

Coast  barley 

1129 
996 
1199 
1611 
1649 
1569 
1107 
1246 
1233 
1444 
1323 
911 
1709 

18.8 
16.6 
20.0 
26.9 
27.5 
26.1 
18.4 
17.3 
17.1 
20.6 
18.4 
12.7 
23.7 

5.3 

7.7 

-  3.2 
-18.8 
-32.0 

-  1.8 
-14.5 

25.2 
13.5 
26.2 
18.7 
-19.0 
5.4 

.35 
.51 

-  2.1 
-1.25 
-2.13 

-  .12 

-  .97 
1.40 

.75 

1.46 

1.04 

-1.06 

.30 

6 
5 
9 

12 

13 
8 

10 
2 
4 
1 
3 

11 
7 

53.7 
32.5 

1.9 
3.1 

17.1 
29.1 

7 

Chevalier  barley 

Nepal  barley 

6 

California  Red  oat 

Coastblack  oat.... 

Roberts  oat 

Wild 

White  Australian  wheat 
Little  Club  wheat 

12.4 
22.8 
14.1 
17.7 

8.1 
4.4 
7.1 
5.7 

1142.1 

576.4 
891.8 
769.5 

1 
4 

Sonora  wheat 

Early  Baart  wheat 

Velvet  Don  wheat 

2 
3 

Rye 

79.0 

1.3 

177.6 

5 

From  one  to  three  of  the  animals  in  all  but  two  lots,  those  fed 
Sonora  and  White  Australian  wheat  hay,  lost  weight  during  the 
progress  of  the  trials;  and  in  the  lot  fed  Coastblack  oats  all  the 
animals  lost  weight.  Gains  in  body  weight  of  forty  pounds  or  over 
were  made  by  heifers  fed  Early  Baart,  Sonora,  White  Australian 
wheat  hay,  and  Chevalier  barley;  on  the  other  hand,  heifers  fed 
Nepal  barley,  Coastblack  oats,  Velvet  Don,  and  wild  oat  hay  lost  over 
40  pounds  each  during  the  feeding  period.  On  the  average  for  each 
lot,  gains  in  body  weight  were  made  in  decreasing  order  as  follows: 
Sonora  (average  1.46  lbs.  per  head  daily)  ;  White  Australian,  Early 
Baart,  Little  Club  wheat  hay,  Chevalier  and  Coast  barley  hays  and 
rye  hay  (.30  lbs.  gain).    The  lots  that  lost  weight  on  the  average  were 


Bull.  394]  FEEDING   TRIALS    WITH    CEREAL    HAYS  63 

as  follows,  in  increasing  order:  Roberts  oat  (.12  lbs.  per  head  daily), 
wild  oat,  Velvet  Don  (durum)  wheat,  California  Red  oat,  Nepal  barley 
and  Coastblack  oat  (2.13  lbs.). 

The  outstanding  feature  of  the  trials,  therefore,  is  that  the  four 
wheat  varieties  ranked  highest  for  production  of  body  weight,  when 
fed  under  the  conditions  of  these  trials,  with  Coast  and  Chevalier 
barleys  and  rye  following  in  the  order  given.  Considering  the 
economy  of  the  hay  feeding  and  the  gain  made  per  hundred  pounds 
of  hay,  the  wheat  varieties  were  decidedly  ahead  of  the  other  grain 
hays  mentioned.  All  produced  a  net  average  gain  in  body  weights, 
while  all  varieties  of  oat  hay,  Velvet  Don,  and  Nepal  barley,  failed 
to  produce  any  gain  in  weight  during  the  trials.  The  further  dis- 
cussion of  the  results  obtained  in  these  trials  will  be  postponed  until 
the  other  two  feeding  trials  conducted  during  the  second  year  have 
been  described  and  the  results  obtained  presented. 

Second  Feeding  Trial,  January  to>  March,  1920. — In  view  of  the 
importance  of  cereal  hay  as  a  stock  feed  to  the  farmers  of  the  state, 
and  of  the  lack  of  reliable  information  as  to  the  value  of  different 
hays  for  the  various  classes  of  livestock,  it  was  decided  to  repeat 
the  trials  with  grain  hays  grown  at  the  University  Farm  during  the 
following  year.  It  was  felt  that  the  poor  showing  made  by  the  oat 
hays  might  be  due  to  the  fact  that  this  locality,  the  lower  Sacramento 
Valley,  is  not  particularly  adapted  to  the  growing  of  oat  hay,  and  that 
the  results  with  oat  hay  grown  in  localities  where  oats  do  especially 
well,  and  where  considerable  quantities  of  oat  hay  are  raised  nor- 
mally, might  be  different.  It  was,  therefore,  decided  to  purchase 
a  quantity  of  standard  wheat  hay  and  oat  hay  on  the  market,  and 
to  feed  these  hays  to  a  dozen  yearling  heifers  at  the  University  Farm 
during  January  to  March,  1920.  The  plan  of  the  trials  provided 
for  feeding  the  hays  during  two  periods  of  four  weeks  each  to  two 
lots  of  heifers,  wheat  hay  to  be  fed  to  one  lot  during  the  first 
period,  and  oat  hay  to  the  other  lot.  During  the  second  period  the 
lots  were  to  be  reversed,  wheat  hay  being  fed  to  the  lot  receiving 
oat  hay  during  the  first  period,  and  vice  versa.  A  week's  preliminary 
feeding  preceded  each  period  in  order  to  accustom  the  animals  to 
the  feed. 

Twelve  dairy  heifers,  namely,  4  pure-bred  Jerseys,  3  pure-bred 
and  2  grade  Holsteins,  1  pure-bred  and  1  grade  Ayrshire,  and  1  pure- 
bred Guernsey  were  available  for  this  trial.  The  heifers  ranged  in 
age  from  14  to  32  months,  and  in  weight  from  612  to  1080  lbs.  at  the 
beginning  of  trial.  They  were  separated  into  two  lots  that  were 
made  as  uniform  as  possible  as  to  breed,  age,  weight,  and  general 


64 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


thriftiness.  The  average  ages  of  the  lots  were  19  and  20  months  for 
lots  A  and  B,  respectively ;  the  average  weight  of  the  heifers  in  lot  A 
was  819.7  lbs,,  and  of  those  in  lot  B,  820.3  lbs.  The  animals  were  fed 
in  corrals  adjoining  the  dairy  barn  on  the  west,  in  a  way  similar  to 
that  of  the  previous  season's  trials.  They  were  weighed  off  dry 
feed  on  two  consecutive  days,  at  the  beginning  and  also  at  the  end 
of  each  period. 

Both  the  wheat  hay  and  the  oat  hay  were  grown  in  Sonoma  County 
and  were  purchased  of  an  Oakland  firm.  A  botanical  examination 
of  the  hays  made  by  Hendry  gave  the  following  results : 

The  wheat  hay  was  of  a  bright  pale  green  color,  consisting  of 
about  75  per  cent  White  Australian  and  25  per  cent  mixed  Little 
Club  and  Early  Baart.  The  hay  had  been  cut  when  the  Aus- 
tralian variety  was  in  the  ' '  late  milk ' '  and  the  hay  of  this  variety 
and  Little  Club  contained  small  shrunken  kernels.  The  Early 
Baart  variety,  on  the  other  hand,  being  a  more  early  maturing 
variety,  was  more  advanced  when  cut,  the  hay  contained  a  higher 
percentage  of  grain,  and  the  kernels  were  about  half  formed. 
Evidently,  the  Early  Baart  was  in  the  "soft  dough"  when  cut. 

The  oat  hay  consisted  of  the  common  California  Red  or  Texas 
Red  variety,  and  was  of  a  bright  color,  well  cured  and  6f  good 
quality.  It  had  the  characteristic  reddish  purple  color  of  the 
variety.  It  was  in  the  ' '  late  dough ' '  when  cut,  and  the  kernels  for 
the  most  part  were  well  filled.  On  the  whole  it  was  slightly  more 
advanced  as  to  maturity  than  the  sample  of  wheat  fed  in  com- 
parison. 

Both  hays  were  No.  1  grade  hay  and  of  good  quality.  The 
wheat  hay  would  probably  have  had  a  better  grade  on  the  mar- 
ket had  it  been  cut  earlier,  and  had  been  of  a  greener  color. 

The  feeding  trial  commenced  January  7  and  ended  on  March  17. 
The  results  obtained  in  the  trial  as  shown  in  table  16. 


TABLE    16 
Second   Feeding    Trial 


Wheat  hay 

Oat  hay 

Lot  A 
Perl 

LotB* 
Peril 

Total 

LotB* 
Perl 

Lot  A 
Peril 

Total 

Hay  eaten,  lbs 

3420 

20.4 

837.5 

38.8 

2738 
19.6 
823.4 
7.6 

6158 
20 

3125 
22.3 

787.2 
35.8 

3795 
22.6 
885.3 

5.7 

6920 

Average  per  head,  daily 

Average  initial  body  weight. 
Total  gain  in  weight 

22.5 

46.4 
.83 

41.5 

Average  daily  gain,  lbs 

.74 

*  Average  for  5  animals. 


Bull.  394 


FEEDING    TRIALS    WITH    CEREAL    HAYS 


65 


One  of  the  heifers  included  in  lot  B  freshened  earlier  than 
expected,  namely,  March  2,  and  the  data  given  for  this  lot  therefore 
include  those  for  five  animals  instead  of  six,  the  number  comprising 
lot  A.  The  stock  ate  the  hay  much  more  readily  in  the  beginning  of 
the  feeding  periods  than  toward  the  end.  This  applies  to  either  kind 
of  hay,  and  is  very  probably  the  result  of  the  one-sided  diet  which 
the  heifers  received.  Considerably  greater  gains  in  body  weight 
were  made  by  each  lot  during  the  first  period  than  during  the  second, 
the  decrease  in  gains  made  by  animals  going  from  wheat  hay  to  oat 
hay  being  greater  than  for  those  receiving  wheat  hay  during  the 


Fig.  17. — Feeding  trials  in  progress  at  Davis.  The  outstanding  generaliza- 
tion arising  from  three  separate  cereal  hay  feeding  trials  at  Davis  has  been :  that 
the  nutritive  effect  of  oat  hay,  fed  as  a  sole  ration  to  dairy  stock,  is  considerably 
lower  than  that  of  wheat,  barley,  or  rye  hay.     (p.  59.) 

second  period.  The  smaller  heifers  ordinarily  did  not  get  to  the  feed 
racks  until  the  larger  ones  had  had  their  fill,  and  made,  in  general, 
smaller  gains.  The  condition  and  general  thriftiness  of  the  heifers 
at  the  close  of  the  trial,  as  a  result,  as  judged  by  their  external  appear- 
ance, differed  considerably. 

There  was  apparently  but  little  difference  between  the  two  kinds 
of  hay  as  regards  waste  of  feeding;  it  would  seem  as  though  this 
depends  more  on  the  manner  of  feeding  the  hay  in  the  racks,  and 
the  amounts  fed  at  a  time,  than  on  the  kind  of  hay  fed.  In  these 
trials  the  hay  was  put  before  the  animals  each  day  in  such  quantities 
as  they  would  be  likely  to  clean  up  each  time.  Good  weather  prevailed 
throughout   the   trials,    although   these   were    conducted    during   the 


66  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

rainy  season,  and  the  conditions  in  this  respect  were  therefore  favor- 
able to  securing  uniform  results.  The  data  presented  in  the  table 
show  that  the  average  amounts  of  hay  eaten  by  the  heifers  during 
the  trials  were  20.0  lbs,  of  wheat  hay  and  22.5  lbs.  of  oat  hay  per  day, 
and  that  the  daily  gains  in  body  weight  averaged  .83  and  .74  lbs.  per 
day  for  wheat  hay  and  oat  hay  rations,  respectively.  In  spite  of  the 
larger  amount  eaten,  the  animals  therefore  did  not  gain  so  much 
on  oat  hay  as  on  wheat  hay.  Calculated  upon  100  lbs.  of  hay  eaten, 
an  average  gain  on  wheat  hay  amounting  to  4.15  lbs,  was  secured,  and 
on  oat  hay  3.29  lbs.,  indicating  a  difference  in  nutritive  effect  of  close 
to  25  per  cent  in  favor  of  the  wheat  hay  as  compared  w£th  oat  hay. 

Third  Feeding  Trial,  August  to  October,  1920. — Four  varieties 
of  grain  hay  were  grown  at  the  University  Farm  during  1920  for  the 
purpose  of  further  study  of  the  yields  and  feeding  value  of  standard 
California  grain  hays,  as  reported  in  the  preceding  pages.  The 
hays  used  in  the  feeding  trials  were  transferred  to  the  corral  west  of 
the  dairy  barn,  where  they  were  stacked.  The  hay  was  hauled  from 
the  stacks  as  needed,  100  to  200  lbs.  at  a  time,  and  placed  in  the 
feed  racks  before  the  stock. 

Twenty-four  yearling  heifers  were  available  for  the  trial.  They 
were  separated  into  four  lots  of  six  each,  in  such  a  way  that  the  lots 
were  as  uniform  as  possible  as  to  average  age,  weight,  breed,  etc.  The 
trial  commenced  August  25,  1920,  and  was  continued  for  eight  weeks, 
separated  into  two  periods  of  four  weeks  each.  The  different  lots 
were  fed  grain  hay  only,  as  follows,  during  the  progress  of  the  trial : 

Period  I.  Period  II. 

August  25  to  September  22  September  22  to  October  20 
Lot  I. — Barley  hay  Wheat  hay 

Lot  II. — Wheat  hay  Barley  hay 

Lot  III. — Oat  hay  Rye  hay 

Lot  IV. — Rye  hay  Oat  hay. 

Amounts  of  Feed  Eaten. — The  amounts  of  feed  eaten  during 
the  third  trial,  and  the  gains  in  body  weight  made  by  the  different 
lots  during  the  two  periods  are  shown  in  table  17. 

The  results  presented  in  the  table  show  that  about  6000  lbs. 
of  wheat  and  oat  hay,  about  5000  lbs.  of  barley  hay,  and  5600  lbs. 
of  rye  hay  were  eaten  by  the  heifers  during  the  entire  trial.  The 
total  gains  made  by  the  lots  fed  wheat  and  rye  hay  were  practically 
equal,  namely,  217  and  220  lbs.,  while  during  the  barley  hay  periods 
the   animals   gained   a   total   of   183   lbs.,    and   during   the   oat   hay 


Bull.  394] 


FEEDING    TRIALS    WITH    CEREAL    HAYS 


67 


periods  54  lbs.  only.  The  superiority  of  wheat  hay  over  barley  and 
oat  hay  was  therefore  again  demonstrated  in  these  trials,  and  it 
is  noteworthy  that  the  gains  made  by  the  animals  on  the  oat  hay  were 
only  one-fourth  that  secured  by  either  wheat  or  rye  hay.  Small  losses 
in  weight  occurred  in  individual  animals  during  all  periods  and  on 
all  grain  hays,  except  in  the  cases  of  barley  hay  during  Period  I, 
and  rye  hay  during  period  II. 

TABLE  17 
Third  Feeding   Trial 


Barley 

Wheat 

Oats 

Rye 

Hay, 
lbs. 

Gai  n  i  n 

weight, 

lbs. 

Hay, 
lbs. 

Gain  in 

weight, 

lbs. 

Hay, 
lbs. 

Gain  in 

weight, 

lbs. 

Hay, 
lbs. 

Gain  in 

weight, 

lbs. 

Period  I 

2530 
2550 

165 

18 

3205 
2800 

105 
112 

3235 

2800 

14 
40 

2775 

2840 

196 

Period  II 

24 

Total 

5080 

27.8 

183 

6005 
27.6 

217 

6035 
111.8 

54 

5615 
25.5 

220 

Pounds  hay  per 

pound  gain.. 

The  chemical  analyses  of  the  different  kinds  of  hay  fed  in 
these  trials,  as  determined  in  the  Nutrition  Laboratory  in  Berkeley 
through  the  kind  assistance  of  Professor  M.  E.  Jaffa,  gave  the  results 
shown  in  table  18. 

TABLE    18 
Chemical  Composition  of  Grain  Hays,  in  Percentages 


Rye 

Wheat 

Oats 

Barley 

Moisture 

13.94 

5.05 

2.01 

39.35 

39.65 

15.11 

6.59 

2.17 

37.10 

39.03 

15.29 

6.93 

2.34 

37.65 

37.79 

15.35 

Protein 

6.75 

Fat 

1.82 

Fiber 

29.98 

Starch,  sugar,  etc 

46.10 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

Digestion  trials  with  grain  hays  have  only  been  conducted  in 
this  country  with  barley  and  oat  hay.  On  the  basis  of  the  results 
of  these  trials,  and  assuming  that  the  digestibility  of  wheat  and  rye 
hays  is  similar  to  that  of  barley  hay,  the  percentage  of  digestible 
components  in  the  four  kinds  of  hay  are  as  shown  below : 


68 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


TABLE    19 
Percentage  of  Digestible  Components 


Barley 


Wheat 


Oats 


Rye 


Digestible  protein 

Fiber 

Nitrogen  free  extract 

Fat 

Total  digestible  matter 
Nutritive  ratio,  1: 


4.4 
18.6 
29.0 

1.7 
53.7 
11.2 


4.3 
23.0 
24.6 

2.0 
53.9 
11.5 


3.7 
19.6 
21.2 

3.2 

47.7 
11.9 


3.3 
24.4 
25.0 

1.8 
54.5 
15.5 


The  amounts  of  digestible  components  supplied  in  the  hays  eaten 
by  the  heifers  during  the  progress  of  the  trial  have  been  calculated 
on  basis  of  the  data  shown  in  the  preceding  table,  and  are  given 
below.  The  gains  in  body  weight  obtained  per  100  lbs.  of  digestible 
matter  are  also  given: 

TABLE  20 
Gains  Per  100  Lbs.   of   Digestible   Matter 


Barley 


Wheat 


Oats 


Rye 


Pounds  of  total  digestible  matter  eaten 

Pounds  of  dry  matter  per  100  lbs.  of  gain. 


3060 
13. 


3237 
14. 


2879 
53.3 


2728 
14.9 


The  data  given  in  the  table  indicate  that  under  the  conditions 
which  obtained  in  these  trials  there  was  no  marked  difference  in  the 
nutritive  effects  of  the  digestible  matter  in  the  three  cereals,  barley, 
wheat,  and  rye,  and  that  the  digestible  matter  of  oat  hay  proved 
of  decidedly  lower  value  than  these  three  cereals  for  the  production 
of  body  growth,  in  the  case  of  heifers  experimented  with. 

General  Discussion. — In  three  different  trials  with  different 
groups  of  young  dairy  stock,  and  with  hays  of  different  origin  and 
quality,  the  nutritive  effect  of  oat  hay  fed  as  sole  feed,  as  in  these 
trials,  was  found  to  be  considerably  lower  than  that  of  wheat  hay  or  of 
the  two  other  cereal  hays  experimented  with.  The  trials  do  not  furnish 
any  information  as  to  the  feeding  value  or  nutritive  effects  of  different 
grain  hays  as  components  of  mixed  rations,  or  when  fed  in  connec- 
tion with  one  or  more  feeds  of  different  origin.  Extensive  investi- 
gations with  dairy  cows  have  been  conducted  during  the  past  decade, 
especially  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station,9  in  which  the  effects 
of  one-sided  rations  supplied  by  feeds  from  a  common  source  have 
been  studied,  such  as  rations  composed  of  feeds  derived  exclusively 


oRes.  Bui.  17,  49;  Jour.  Agr.  Bes.  v.  10  (1917)  4,  175. 


BULL.  394]  FEEDING    TRIALS    WITH    CEREAL    HAYS  69 

from  the  wheat  plant,  the  Indian  corn  plant,  or  other  single  plant 
sources.  In  these  experiments  the  corn  plant  was  found  to  be  the 
only  cereal  investigated  that  furnishes  feeds  which  can  be  fed  alone 
for  a  long  period  with  satisfactory  results  as  regards  the  milk  produc- 
tion and  the  continued  health  or  well-being  of  the  cows  themselves, 
or  of  their  offspring. 

The  animals  receiving  their  nutrients  from  the  oat  plant  were  able 
to  perform  all  the  physiological  processes  of  growth,  reproduction, 
and  milk  secretion  with  a  certain  degree  of  vigor,  but  not  in  the  same 
degree  as  manifested  by  the  corn-fed  animals,  while  those  receiving 
their  nutrients  from  the  wheat  plant  were  unable  to  perform  normally 
and  with  vigor  all  physiological  processes.  These  trials  were  con- 
tinued for  a  series  of  years,  and  the  results  stated  did  not  become 
apparent  until  the  feeding  had  been  continued  for  one  or  more 
gestation  periods. 

In  these  Wisconsin  experiments  larger  gains  in  body  weight 
were  made  every  year  by  the  animals  fed  oat  feeds  than  by  those 
receiving  wheat  feeds,  the  difference  in  favor  of  the  former  amounting 
on  the  average  for  the  three-year  period  to  22  per  cent.  The  wheat 
rations  fed  in  the  experiments  were  composed  of  wheat  straw,  ground 
wheat,  and  wheat  gluten,  and  the  oat  rations  of  oat  straw  and  oat 
meal.  The  amounts  of  nutrients  furnished  and  the  proportion  of  the 
digestible  protein  to  digestible  non-protein  (nutritive  ratio)  being 
the  same  in  all  rations  fed.  Later  investigations  showed  that  the 
relatively  poor  results  obtained  with  the  animals  on  the  sole  wheat 
diet  were  due  to  the  presence  of  a  toxic  principle  in  the  wheat  kernel, 
the  cumulative  effects  of  which  did  not  become  apparent  until  the 
feeding  had  continued  through  a  full  gestation  period.  The  rations 
made  up  from  the  oat  plant  were  found  inadequate  for  efficient 
nutrition  of  breeding  cows,  apparently  owing  to  an  insufficient 
supply  of  calcium  in  the  ration. 

The  feeding  trials  reported  in  this  Californian  bulletin  were  all 
of  relatively  short  duration,  and  it  cannot  be  assumed  that  the 
results  secured  under  these  conditions  are  attributable  to  causes  that 
were  in  operation  in  the  investigation  referred  to,  in  which  the 
rations  experimented  with  were  fed  continuously  for  a  period  of 
several  years.  They  do  not  therefore  throw  any  light  on  the  question 
of  why  the  oat  hay  produced  uniformly  poorer  results  as  regards 
gain  in  body  weight  than  wheat  hay,  and  it  must  be  left  to  future 
experiments  of  a  different  kind  and  scope,  involving  determinations 
of  metabolic  processes,  to  explain  the  causes  of  the  difference  in  the 
results  obtained. 


70  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


SUMMARY 

Cereal  hay  is  the  most  widely  grown  field  crop  in  California. 

Cereal  varieties  differ  as  hay  crops  in  production,  quality,  palat- 
ability, chemical  composition,  physical  composition,  and  nutritive 
effect. 

Barley  appeared  to  be  the  most  valuable  hay  upon  the  basis  of 
chemical  analysis,  but  ranked  second  to  wheat  in  nutritive  effect  in 
feeding  tests. 

Beardless  (Nepal)  was  inferior  to  other  barley  varieties  in  hay 
yield,  palatability,  and  nutritive  effect. 

Chevalier  barley  was  superior  to  other  barley  varieties  in  hay 
yield,  palatability,  and  nutritive  effect. 

Barley  hay  suffered  less  diminution  in  yield  than  that  of  other 
cereals  as  a  result  of  drought  and  late  planting. 

Wheat,  under  favorable  circumstances,  produced  higher  hay 
yields  than  the  other  cereals,  but  was  less  productive  than  barley 
under  conditions  of  drought. 

Wheat  hay  fed  as  an  exclusive  ration  to  dairy  heifers  produced 
larger  gains  in  body  weight  per  pound  fed  than  barley,  oat  or  rye 
hay. 

Wheat  hay,  under  favorable  circumstances,  produced  more  feed 
value  per  acre  than  barley,  oat,  or  rye  hay. 

White  Australian  (Pacific  Bluestem)  proved  to  be  the  most  proli- 
fic hay  wheat  excepting  Velvet  Don,  but  the  latter,  a  typical  durum 
variety,  was  inferior  in  palatability  and  nutritive  effect,  and  unsuited 
for  hay.  White  Australian  also  produced  the  highest  gains  in  body 
weight  per  pound  fed  and  per  acre  of  crop.  Sonora  wheat  was  less 
productive,  but  ranked  second  to  White  Australian  in  food  value 
per  acre. 

Oat  hay  proved  less  nutritious  than  wheat,  barley,  or  rye  hay  when 
fed  as  an  exclusive  ration  to  dairy  heifers. 

Wild  oat  hay  was  less  productive,  but  surpassed  cultivated  oat 
hay  in  palatability  and  nutritive  effect. 

The  Coastblack  oat  proved  equally  productive  but  less  valuable 
as  a  hay  crop  than  the  California  Red  oat. 

Rye  hay  was  of  medium  productiveness,  but  low  in  palatability 
and  nutritive  effect. 


BULL.  394]  FEEDING    TRIALS    WITH    CEREAL    HAYS  71 

The  degree  of  maturity  when  cut  affects  the  yield,  palatability, 
and  the  chemical  and  physical  composition  of  cereal  hay. 

The  highest  hay  yield  for  each  cereal  was  obtained  by  cutting  at 
a  stage  of  development  peculiar  to  itself,  and  varied  for  different 
varieties  from  ' '  early  milk  "  to  ' '  late  soft  dough. ' ' 

Immature  wheat  hay  cut  in  the  "blossom"  was  more  palatable  to 
dairy  cattle  than  hay  of  the  same  variety  cut  at  later  stages  of 
development. 

Immature  cereal  hays  are  composed  of  a  higher  percentage  of 
leaves  by  weight  than  mature  cereal  hays. 

Immature  cereal  hays  are  richer  in  proteins  and  contain  less  fiber 
than  mature  cereal  hays. 

Experience  indicates  that  barley,  wheat  and  oats  should  be  cut 
in  the  "milk"  when  intended  for  dairy  cattle  or  saddle  horses,  and 
in  the  "soft  dough"  when  intended  for  work  horses,  mules  or  stock 
cattle.  Rye  should  be  cut  in  the  "blossom"  or  earlier  for  all  pur- 
poses. 


15m-10,'25 


